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Gaius Julius Caesar
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File:Julius caesar.jpg Julius Caesar (Latin Gaius Iulius Caesar - Emperor Gaius Julius Caesar) (102 or 100 BC March 15, 44 BC) was an ancient Roman statesman and politician, commander, writer.
With his conquest of Gaul, Caesar expanded the Roman power to the shores of the North Atlantic and subjugated modern France to Roman influence, as well as launched an invasion of the British Isles.
Caesar's activity radically changed the cultural and political image of Western Europe and left an indelible mark on the lives of the next generations of Europeans.
Gaius Julius Caesar, with his brilliant abilities as a military strategist and tactician, won the battles of the civil war and became the sole ruler of Pax Romana.
Along with Gnaeus Pompey, he began the reform of Roman society and the state, which after his death led to the establishment of the Roman Empire.
Caesar wanted to centralize the administration of the republic.
Evil tongues said that he aspired to the royal power.
However, Caesar, remembering the bad memory of the first seven kings (because of them, the Romans could not stand the monarchy), went the other way: he became a lifelong dictator.
He insisted on being called simply Caesar.
His murder led to the resumption of civil wars, the decline of the Roman Republic and the birth of the Empire, which was headed by his adopted Octavian Augustus.
Later, many monarchs wanted to associate themselves with the legendary Caesar.
So there were German caesar, Caesar (for example, in the phrase from the Gospel "To God - to God, and to Caesar - to Caesar"), as well as the Russian "tsar" is a truncation from Caesar.
Content [expand]
Family Edit
Gaius Julius Caesar was born in Rome, in a Patrician family from the Julian family, which played a significant role in the history of Rome since ancient times.
The family of the Julii was descended from Julius, the son of the Trojan prince Aeneas, who, according to mythology, was the son of the goddess Venus.
Being at the height of his fame, in 45 BC , Caesar laid the temple of Venus the Ancestress in Rome, thereby hinting at his kinship with the goddess.
The cognomen Caesar had no meaning in Latin; the Soviet historian of Rome A. I. Nemirovsky suggested that it comes from Cisre — the Etruscan name of the city of Ceres ([1]; see also: A. I. Nemirovsky.
The Etruscans: from Myth to History. M. 1980).
The antiquity of the Caesar family itself is difficult to establish (the first known one dates back to the end of the III century BC).
The father of the future dictator, also Gaius Julius Caesar, stopped in his career at the post of praetor.
On his mother's side, Caesar came from the Cotta family of the Aurelian family (with an admixture of Plebeian blood).
Caesar's uncles were consuls: Sextus Julius Caesar (91 BC), Lucius Julius Caesar (90 BC)
Gaius Julius Caesar lost his father at the age of sixteen; he maintained close friendly relations with his mother until her death in 54 BC.
File:Julius Caesar Italian marble 19th c..jpg A noble and cultured family created favorable conditions for his development; careful physical education later served him a considerable service; a thorough education — scientific, literary, grammatical, on the Greco Roman basis formed logical thinking, prepared him for practical activity, for literary work.
First marriage and service in Asia Edit
The Julius Caesars, despite their aristocratic origin, were not rich by the standards of the Roman nobility of that time.
That is why, until Caesar himself, almost none of his relatives achieved much influence.
Only his paternal aunt, Julia, married Gaius Marius, a talented general and reformer of the Roman army.
Marius was the leader of the Populares democratic faction in the Roman Senate and strongly opposed the conservatives from the Optimates faction.
Internal political conflicts in Rome at that time reached such an acuteness that they led to a civil war.
After the capture of Rome by Marius in 87 BC, the power of the populars was established for a while.
The young Caesar was awarded the title of flamin Jupiter.
But, in 86 BC, Marius died, and in 84 BC, during a riot in the troops, Cinna was killed.
In 82 BC, Rome was taken by the troops of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, and Sulla himself became dictator.
Caesar, on the other hand, was connected by double kinship with the party of his opponent, Marius: at the age of seventeen, he married Cornelia, the youngest daughter of Lucius Cornelius Cinna, an associate of Marius and Sulla's worst enemy.
This was a kind of demonstration of his commitment to the popular party, by that time belittled and defeated by the all powerful Sulla.
It is not surprising, therefore, that Sulla almost immediately after the wedding demanded that Caesar divorce his wife, as Marcus Piso, who was married to Annia, the widow of Lucius Cinna, and others did at his request.
Despite the threat of getting into the proscription lists in case of refusal, Caesar remained faithful to his wife.
The requests of numerous relatives, personally connected with Sulla, saved him from the dictator's anger.
Although, in general, it is doubtful that the stubborn young man could seem particularly dangerous to Sulla.
The dictator's disfavor, however, forced Julius Caesar to resign from his duties as a flamin and leave Rome for Asia Minor, where he served military service at the headquarters of propraetor Marcus Minucius Thermus.
Here he also had to fulfill diplomatic assignments at the court of the Bithynian king Nicomedes, thanks to which he was able to master the basics of Hellenistic administration and economy in this center of late Hellenism.
He fulfilled his commission so brilliantly that his enemies in Rome even spread a rumor that for this he had to become the lover of King Nicomedes.
Caesar's sexual adventures were such that, according to Suetonius, one of his opponents once called him "the husband of every woman and the wife of every man."
During the siege and storming of Mytilene, he earned the military distinction corona civica, an oak wreath, which he received from the hands of propraetor Marcus Minucius Thermus himself.
Subsequently, he was in Cilicia, in the camp of Servilius of Isauria.
Three years of his stay in the East did not pass without a trace for the young man; when further conclusions about the nature of his policy, one should always keep in mind the first impressions of his youth received in cultured, rich, orderly monarchical Asia.
Return to Rome and participate in the political struggle Edit
After the death of Sulla (78 BC), Caesar returned to Rome and joined the political struggle (speaking at the Roman Forum with speeches against Sulla's supporters Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella and Gaius Antonius, who were accused of extortion in the provinces of Macedonia and Greece, respectively, where they were governors).
Caesar lost both trials, but despite this he gained fame as one of the best orators in Rome.
In order to master the art of oratory perfectly, Caesar specially went to Rhodes in 75 BC to the famous teacher Apollonius Molon.
On the way, he was captured by Cilician pirates, he had to pay a significant ransom for his release, and while his friends were collecting money, he spent more than a month in captivity, practicing eloquence before the kidnappers.
After his release, he immediately gathered a fleet in Miletus, captured a pirate fortress and ordered the captured pirates to be crucified on a cross as a warning to others.
But since they had treated him well in their time, Caesar ordered their throats to be cut before the crucifixion in order to ease their suffering.
Caesar briefly participates in the war with King Mithridates at the head of an independent detachment, but does not stay there for long.
In 74 BC, he returned to Rome.
In 73 BC, he was co opted into the priestly college of pontiffs in place of the deceased Lucius Aurelius Cotta, his uncle.
Subsequently, he wins the election to the military tribunes.
Always and everywhere, Caesar does not tire of reminding about his democratic beliefs, his connection with Gaius Marius and his dislike of aristocrats.
Actively participates in the fight for voss the restoration of the rights of the tribunes of the people, curtailed by Sulla, for the rehabilitation of the associates of Gaius Marius, who were persecuted during the dictatorship of Sulla, seeks the return of Lucius Cornelius Cinna the son of the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna and the brother of Caesar's wife.
At this time, the beginning of his rapprochement with Gnaeus Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus, on whose close connection he builds his future career, dates back to this time.
Meanwhile, in 70 BC, a power struggle begins between Pompey and Crassus in Rome.
Both of these military leaders had just won outstanding victories — Crassus led the army that defeated the rebellious slaves under the leadership of Spartacus, and Pompey, after suppressing Sertorius 'rebellion in Spain, returned to Italy and destroyed the remnants of Spartacus' troops.
Both competitors claimed to receive the entire Roman army under their command.
In 69 BC , Caesar becomes a widower — Cornelia dies in childbirth.
In 68 BC, his aunt Julia, the widow of Gaius Maria, died.
Caesar's funeral speech is full of political allusions and calls for political reforms.
In the same year, the 30 year old Caesar is elected Quaestor.
Caesar performs the duties of a quaestor in Distant Spain.
The years between the questura and the aedilitium are occupied by a judicial career and Caesar's increasingly close rapprochement with Pompey and Crassus.
The new marriage of Caesar - to Pompeia, the granddaughter of Sulla, the daughter of Quintus Pompeius Rufus (65 BC) - seals, according to the Hellenistic custom of political marriages, this rapprochement.
Caesar is in favor of granting Pompey extraordinary military powers.
Pompey prevails in the fight against Crassus, leads a fleet and an army, and in 66 BC begins a campaign to the East, during which the Romans conquer most of Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine.
In 65 BC , Caesar was elected aedile.
Its functions include the organization of urban construction, transport, trade, and the daily life of Rome.
Caesar arranges expensive spectacles for the Romans, magnificent theatrical performances, gladiatorial fights, public dinners, gaining popularity in wide circles of Roman citizenship.
It takes him almost all of his money.
By the end of the year, he comes bankrupt.
Huge debts (several hundred gold talents) threaten his future career.
Caesar's success as aedile, however, allows him to be elected in 63 BC as a great pontiff, which gives him the opportunity to get rid of some of his debts.
The entry into the new position was overshadowed by a scandal.
Caesar's second wife, Pompeia, was responsible as the wife of the high priest for organizing the religious festival of the Good Goddess (Bona Dea), in which only women could participate.
However, a man dressed in a woman's dress made his way into the building intended for the sacred ceremony, which was a monstrous sacrilege.
Caesar was forced to file for divorce admitting that his wife may be innocent, he nevertheless declares: "Caesar's wife, like his entire family, should be above suspicion."
Caesar and Catilina Edit
In 65 BC, according to some contradictory contemporary accounts, Caesar was involved in an unsuccessful plot to seize power.
Pompey's great successes in the East, the fame he gained, and the army he created aroused in Rome the conviction that Pompey would undoubtedly play the role of dictator Sulla in Rome in the near future.
This was especially clearly recognized by those who, like Pompey, sought supremacy in Rome — his recent allies, Crassus and Caesar.
To achieve their goals, they tried to arrange an anti state conspiracy, as a result of which Crassus was to be proclaimed dictator, and Caesar was to be his closest assistant.
The plot failed, and the planned murders were not carried out.
The conspirators, however, were left without punishment — moreover, the authorities decided not to admit that any coup was planned at all (the reason for not inflating the scandal may have been the significant influence of Caesar and Crassus at that time).
In 64 BC , Caesar and his supporters are trying to get one of the participants in an unsuccessful conspiracy, Lucius Sergius Catilina, who at one time made a fortune on proscriptions under Sulla, and now an impoverished patrician, to become consul.
This desire is not allowed to be fulfilled by the Roman Senate and later the brilliant orator Marcus Tullius Cicero, who was elected consul.
Enraged by constant failures and feeling that his political life is over, Catiline tries to organize a seizure of power himself in 62 BC, but a new plot also fails, Catiline, after an unsuccessful attempt on Cicero's life, flees Rome and dies in battle, and five of his supporters are captured and executed without trial by a decision of the Senate.
Caesar, being in a difficult situation, does not say a word in justification of the conspirators, but insists on not subjecting them to the death penalty.
His proposal does not pass, and Caesar himself almost dies at the hands of an angry crowd.
The first Triumvirate Edit
File:Gaius Julius Caesar.jpg In 62 BC , Julius Caesar sends a praetura.
His plans for independent actions, which would have paralyzed Pompey, are collapsing.
It is not without difficulty that he manages to avoid being accused of participating in Catilina's conspiracy.
Pompey's return is nearing.
There is only one thing left: to go to the second roles under Pompey and, above all, to make amends for those actions that could have aroused his displeasure.
Caesar openly takes the side of Pompey.
He demands that Pompey be commissioned to finish the construction of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus — an honor that was intended for the recognized head of the optimates, Quintus Lutatius Catulus; he even accuses Catulus of embezzling the money allocated for the construction.
With his active support, the Senate allows Pompey to attend the games in the clothes of a triumphant.
Finally, he also demands military power for Pompey in Italy, under the pretext of the need to finally cope with Catilina and his army.
The Senate, however, did not go to the latter, and even temporarily dismissed Caesar from office.
Meanwhile, Pompey returns to Rome as a private citizen, without an army, and settles outside the city, waiting for the triumph.
Caesar, after the praetura in 62 BC, for 2 years is the governor in the Roman province of Distant Spain, where he shows outstanding administrative and military abilities, makes a fortune for himself and finally pays off his debts.
Spain at that time was the only place where there was a strong army and where it was possible to quickly acquire both laurels and money without much effort.
In 60 BC , Caesar is back in Rome, where he is waiting for a triumph and the post of consul.
However, he sacrifices the former for the latter — he sacrifices willingly, although unwittingly, under the pressure of the Senate — especially since his triumph could hardly have made a strong impression after the just celebrated triumph of Gnaeus Pompey the Great.
In 59 BC , Caesar was elected senior consul of the Roman Republic.
His junior partner is his political opponent Mark Calpurnius Bibulus, a member of the optimate faction.
File:Hispania 1a division provincial.
PNG Caesar's consulate is necessary for both him and Pompey.
Having dismissed the army, Pompey, for all his greatness, is powerless; none of his proposals passes due to the stubborn resistance of the Senate, and yet he promised his veteran soldiers land, and this issue could not wait.
Pompey's supporters alone were not enough, a more powerful influence was needed — this was the basis of Pompey's alliance with Caesar and Crassus.
The consul Caesar himself was in dire need of Pompey's influence and Crassus ' money.
It was not easy to convince the former consul Marcus Licinius Crassus, an old enemy of Pompey, to go to the alliance, but in the end it was possible — this richest man of Rome could not get troops under his command for the war with Parthia.
So there was what historians will later call the first triumvirate — a private agreement of three persons, not sanctioned by anyone and nothing except their mutual consent.
The private character of the triumvirate was also emphasized by the consolidation of its marriages: Pompey on Caesar's only daughter, Julia Caesaris (despite the difference in age and upbringing, this political marriage was sealed by love), and Caesar — on the daughter of Calpurnius Piso.
As consul, Caesar in 59 BC, despite the stubborn resistance of the Senate and his junior partner, passed a number of laws to strengthen the state structure and solve some social problems (in particular, about 20 thousand citizens Pompey's veterans and the fathers of at least three children — receive land plots in Campania).
In addition, in the interests of Pompey, Caesar approves the orders that he made in the East during his military campaign.
The main task of Caesar is to weaken the Senate.
And he achieves this by passing a number of laws that have raised his authority among the Roman people — on the free distribution of bread, on the right to unite in organizations for political purposes, and finally, on the condemnation of all those who illegally encroached on the life of a Roman citizen.
The most important for the future was the law of Vatinius, according to which Caesar was to receive after the consulate not the supervision of forests and roads in Italy, that is, the fight against robbery, as the Senate wanted, but the administration of Northern Italy (Cisalpine Gaul) and Illyria (the coast of Dalmatia), for 5 years, with the right to recruit an army (3 legions — more than 10,000 people).
And here the Senate was forced to give in and even go further: to add to the above the administration of Gaul Transalpine for the same period (there was 1 legion there).
Subsequently, this period b the contract has been extended for another five years.
The Gallic War Edit
Main article: The Gallic War
File:Caesar campaigns gaul.gif The Gallic proconsulate of Caesar was a direct continuation of his activities in the previous 7-8 years, aimed at obtaining under his command a large military force that could allow him to claim power and, if necessary, balance the military influence of Pompey.
At first, Caesar believed that this could be done in Spain, but closer acquaintance with this country and its insufficiently convenient geographical position in relation to Italy forced Caesar to abandon this idea, especially since the traditions of Pompey were strong in Spain and in the Spanish army.
The reason for the outbreak of hostilities in 58 BC in Transalpine Gaul was the mass migration of the Celtic tribe of the Helvetians to these lands.
After the victory over the Helvetians in the same year, a war against the invading Germanic tribes led by Ariovistus followed, which ended in a complete victory for Caesar.
The strengthening of Roman influence in Gaul caused unrest among the Belgians.
The campaign of 57 BC begins with the pacification of the Belgae and continues with the conquest of the northwestern lands, where the Nervii and Aduatuk tribes lived.
In the summer of 57 BC on the bank of the river Sabris there was a grand battle of the Roman legions with the army of the Nervii, when only luck and the best training of the legionaries allowed the Romans to win.
At the same time, the legion under the command of the legate Publius Crassus conquered the tribes of northwestern Gaul.
Based on Caesar's report, the Senate was forced to make a decision on the celebration and a 15 day thanksgiving prayer.
But already in 56 BC there are unrest in various places in Gaul.
Caesar hastily returns from Illyria to suppress the rebellions.
To defeat the Veneti who had fallen away from Caesar, a fleet was built at the mouth of the Loire, which won under the command of Decimus Brutus.
At the same time, the legate Publius Crassus conquered many tribes from the Garona to the Pyrenees, conquering all of Aquitaine.
As a result of three years of successful war, Caesar increased his fortune many times.
He generously gave money to his supporters, attracting new people to himself, increased his influence.
The new 55 BC began with the seizure of the Gallic lands on the territory of modern Flanders by the Germanic tribes of the Usypets and Tenkters.
In a short time, having dealt with the uninvited guests, Caesar leads a crossing over the Rhine and makes a trip to Germany.
In the same year, the first expedition to Britain was made.
Meanwhile, Caesar built a pile bridge across the Rhine in ten days and, crossing to the right bank, demonstrated the power of Rome to the surrounding tribes.
That same summer, Caesar made his first expedition to Britain.
In 54 BC, a second expedition to Britain was undertaken.
The legions met such fierce resistance from the natives that Caesar had to return to Gaul with nothing.
In 53 BC, unrest continued in the Gallic tribes, who could not accept the oppression of the Romans.
All of them were subdued in a short time.
As in previous years, unrest among the Gauls continued in 52 BC.
The Arvern revolt was led by Vercingetorix.
Many other Gallic tribes quickly joined him.
In the fight against the Romans, Vercingetorix used the "scorched earth" tactic, seeking to deprive the Roman army of food and fodder by constant movements and the destruction of settlements during the retreat.
The success of Vercingetorix led to new stronniks, as a result of which the war swept all of Gaul.
Eventually, Caesar besieged Vercingetorix in Alesia.
During the month long siege, the Gallic militia comes to the aid of Vercingetorix.
Having withstood a blow from two sides, Caesar defeats the militia and forces the surrender of Vercingetorix.
In connection with this outstanding victory, the Senate announces a 20 day celebration in Rome.
After the defeat of Vercingetorix, the resistance in Gaul weakened significantly.
The last tribes were pacified by 50 BC..
After the successful Gallic wars, Caesar's popularity in Rome reached its highest limit.
Even such opponents of Caesar as Cicero and Gaius Valerius Catullus recognized the grandiose merits of the commander.
The conflict between Julius Caesar and Pompey Edit
File:RSC 0022.jpg The brilliant results of the first expeditions enormously raised the prestige of Caesar in Rome; Gallic money supported this prestige no less successfully.
The Senate's opposition to the triumvirate, however, was not dormant, and Pompey experienced a number of unpleasant moments in Rome.
In Rome, neither he nor Crassus felt at home; both wanted military power.
Caesar, in order to achieve his intended goals, needed to continue his powers.
On the basis of these wishes, in the winter of 56-55, a new agreement of the triumvirs took place, according to which Caesar received Gaul for another 5 years, Pompey and Crassus — the consulate for the 55th year, and then the consulates: Pompey — in Spain, Crassus — in Syria.
The Syrian proconsulship of Crassus ended with his death.
Pompey remained in Rome, where, after his consulship, complete anarchy began, perhaps not without the efforts of Julius Caesar.
The anarchy reached such proportions that Pompey was elected consul without a college in 52 BC.
The new rise of Pompey, the death of Pompey's wife, Caesar's daughter (54 BC), a number of his intrigues against the growing prestige of Caesar inevitably led to a break between the allies; but the revolt of Vercingetorix saved the situation for a while.
Serious clashes began only in 51 BC.
Pompey figured at the same time in the role that he had long sought — as the head of the Roman state, recognized by the senate and the people, combining military power with civil power, sitting at the gates of Rome, where the Senate was going to him (Ancient Rome), having the proconsular power and disposing of a strong seven legged army in Spain.
If earlier Caesar was necessary for Pompey, now he could only be an obstacle for Pompey, which had to be eliminated as soon as possible, since Caesar's aspirations were incompatible with Pompey's position.
The conflict, which had personally matured already in 56, was now mature and politically; its initiative should have come not from Julius Caesar, whose situation was incomparably worse politically and in relation to legality, but from Pompey, who had all the trumps in his hands, except for the military, and the latter were few only in the first moments.
Pompey put the matter in such a way that the conflict between him and Caesar turned out to be not a personal clash between them, but a clash between the revolutionary proconsul and the senate, that is, the legitimate government.
File:Hw pompey.jpg Cicero's correspondence serves as a documentary touchstone, showing the authenticity of Caesar's own account of events in his political pamphlet of historical content, entitled "De bello civili".
The 109th book of Titus Livy would have been of great importance if it had reached us in the original and not in the extracts of Florus, Eutropius and Orosius.
The basis of Livy's exposition was preserved to us, perhaps, by Dion Cassius.
We also find a lot of data in a brief essay by an officer of the time of the emperor Tiberius, Velleius Paterculus; Suetonius gives a lot, the author of a historical poem from the time of the civil war, a contemporary of Nero, Lucan, gives something.
Appian and Plutarch go back in their account of the civil war, probably to the historical work of Asinius Pollio.
File:RSC 0017.jpg According to the agreement of Caesar and Pompey in Lucca 56 and the subsequent law of Pompey and Crassus 55, Caesar's powers in Gaul and Illyricum were to cease on the last day of February 49; it was definitely stated that there would be no speech in the Senate about a successor to Caesar until March 1, 50.
In 52, only the Gallic troubles prevented a break between Caesar and Pompey, caused by the transfer of all power into the hands of Pompey, as a single consul and at the same time proconsul, which disturbed the balance of the duumvirate.
As compensation, Caesar demanded for himself the possibility of the same position in the future, that is, the union of the consulate and the proconsulate, or rather, the immediate replacement of the proconsulate by the consul.
To do this, it was necessary to obtain permission to be elected consul for 48, without entering the city during 49, which would be tantamount to renouncing military power.
The plebiscite of 52, held in March by the entire tribune college, gave Caesar the requested privilege, which Pompey did not contradict.
This privilege also contained, according to custom, the tacit continuation of the proconsulship until January 1, 48.
The failure of Julius Caesar in the fight against Vercingetorix made the government regret the concession made — and in the same year a number of martial laws were passed against Caesar.
Pompey continued his power in Spain until 45; to eliminate the possibility of Caesar immediately resuming the proconsulate after the consulate, a law was passed prohibiting departure to the province earlier than 5 years after the resignation of the magistracy; finally, a decree prohibiting seeking magistracies without being in Rome was confirmed directly in the abolition of the privilege just given.
To the law already passed, contrary to all legality, Pompey attached, however, a clause confirming the privilege of Caesar.
In 51, the happy end of the Gallic wars gave Caesar the opportunity to once again actively speak in Rome.
He asked the Senate, seeking from him a formal recognition of the privilege, to continue the proconsulatein at least part of the province until January 1, 48.The Senate refused, and this put the question of appointing a successor to Julius Caesar on the turn.
However, the trial of this case was legal only after March 1, 50; until that time, any intercession of the tribunes friendly to Caesar was formally completely thorough.
Caesar sought to personally settle his relations with Pompey; the extreme ones in the Senate did not want to allow this; the middle ones sought a way out, finding it in the fact that Pompey stood at the head of the army appointed for the Parthian war, which was urgently necessary in view of the defeat and death of Crassus.
Pompey himself was seriously ill and spent most of his time away from Rome.
In 50, the matter had to take a more acute turn, especially since Caesar found himself an agent of genius in political intrigue — Curio, who was elected tribune for this year.
Of the consuls, one Aemilius Paulus - was on the side of Caesar, the other G. Marcellus was completely against him, as the leader of the senate ultraconservatives.
Curio's goal was to quarrel with the Senate and Pompey and force the latter to re - enter into relations with Caesar.
To this end, he opposed every decree of the senate on the provinces and demanded that the legality be fully restored, that is, that both Pompey and Caesar should renounce their powers.
In the spring, Pompey became very ill; during his recovery, he agreed in writing to the conditions of Curio and, finally recovering, moved to Rome.
He was accompanied by a continuous triumph; meetings, prayers, etc. gave him confidence that the whole of Italy was for him.
Despite this, even at Rome, he did not take back the consent he had given.
It is quite possible that at the end of 50 a new diplomatic campaign of Caesar took place, challenging Pompey to an agreement; Parthia was probably pointed out as a means of reconciliation.
Pompey could be there in his sphere and renew his eastern laurels.
An indicator of the peaceful mood of Caesar and the possibility of an agreement is that Caesar gave, at the request of the Senate, two of his legions (one lent to him by Pompey) and sent them to Italy in the direction of Brundusium.
In the autumn of 50 Caesar finally appeared in Northern Italy, where he was greeted by a copy of the celebrations given to Pompey.
In November, he was again in Gaul, where a political demonstration that had just taken place in Italy was followed by a military one, in the form of a review of the legions.
The year was nearing its end, and the situation was still extremely uncertain.
The reconciliation between Caesar and Pompey finally failed; a symptom of this is that the Caesar's legions, which were sent to Brundusium in November, were detained in Capua and then waited for events in Luceria.
In the Senate, G. Marcellus vigorously sought to have Julius Caesar declared illegally in power and an enemy of the fatherland, there were no legal grounds for that.
The majority of the Senate, however, was peaceful; the Senate most wanted Caesar and Pompey both to resign their powers.
The main opponent of Marcellus was Curio.
On December 10, he could no longer function as a tribune: on this day, new tribunes entered.
But even now Marcellus failed to attract the Senate after him; then, not wanting to transfer the matter into the hands of new consuls, accompanied by several senators, without any authority, appeared on December 13 at Pompey's Cuman villa and handed him a sword to protect the free system.
Pompey, who has decided to go to war, takes advantage of the opportunity and goes to the legions in Luceria.
The act of December 13, Caesar quite correctly considers the beginning of the turmoil — initium tumultus — on the part of Pompey.
Pompey's actions were illegal and were immediately (on December 21) proclaimed as such in a speech by Antony, one of Julius Caesar's legates and tribunes of that year.
Curio personally informed Caesar, who was at that time in Ravenna, about the incident.
The situation remained uncertain, but Pompey had two excellent legions in his hands, he enlisted the support of one of the people closest to Caesar — T. Labienus; Caesar, on the other hand, had only one legion of veterans in Italy and, in the event of an offensive, had to act in a country hostile to him — so, at least, it seemed to Pompey — a country.
However, already now Pompey probably had in mind the final scores to settle not in Italy, but in the provinces.
For Caesar, the most important thing was to gain time; the pretext for starting military operations was already in his hands, but there were not enough forces for war.
In any case, it was advantageous for him that the beginning of actions was a surprise for his enemies.
Curio presented Caesar's ultimatum to the Senate on January 1.
Caesar announced his readiness to lay down power, but together with Pompey, and threatened otherwise with war.
The threats provoked open opposition from the Senate: Pompey should not resign power, Caesar should resign it before July 49; both, however, were quite legitimate.
The tribunes M. Antony and Cassius protested against the Senate adviser.
After that, however, discussions continued about how to find a modus vivendi without war.
The same was desired by Caesar.
Until January 7, his new, milder conditions were received in Rome.
Pompey had to go to Spain; for himself, Caesar asked for the continuation of power until January 1, 48, at least only in Italy, with an army of only 2 legions.
Cicero, who appeared on January 5 under the walls of Rome after returning from his Cilician kingdom, achieved a further concession: only Illyria and the 1st legion were demanded by Caesar.
Pompey, however, did not agree to these conditions either.
On January 7, the Senate met and made every effort to have the tribunes take back the intercession on January 1.
Antony and Cassius were unwavering.
The consul then demanded their removal from the Senate.
After a heated protest from Antony, Cassius, Caelius Rufus and Curio left the senate and secretly fled to Caesar in the clothes of slaves in a hired cart.
After the removal of the tribunes, the consuls were given extraordinary powers by the Senate, in order to prevent unrest.
In a further meeting outside the city walls, in the presence of Pompey and Cicero, the decretum tumultus was voted, that is, Italy was declared under martial law; the provinces were distributed, money was allocated.
The commander in chief was actually Pompey, by name four proconsuls.
The whole question now was how Caesar would react to this, whether he would be intimidated by the grandiose preparations for war with him.
File:Caesar ueberschreitet den rubikon 1-640x447.jpg Caesar received the news about the actions of the Senate from the fugitive tribunes on January 10.
He had about 5,000 legion soldiers at his disposal.
Half of these forces were stationed on the southern border of the province, near the Rubicon River.
It was necessary to act as soon as possible in order to take the Senate by surprise, before the official news of the Senate's demands of January 1, finally carried out in a legal manner, had arrived.
On the 10th day, Caesar secretly devotes the necessary orders to everyone, at night — again secretly — with several relatives rushes to the army, crosses the border of his province — the Rubicon — and captures Ariminum, the key of Italy.
At the same time, Antony with another part of the army goes to Arretium, which also captures with an unexpected onslaught.
In Ariminum, the ambassadors of the Senate find Caesar recruiting new troops.
Caesar answers them that he wants peace, and promises to clear the province by July 1, if only Illyria would remain behind him, and Pompey would retire to Spain.
At the same time, Caesar insistently demands a meeting with Pompey.
Meanwhile, terrible rumors are spreading in Rome.
The Senate, upon the return of the ambassadors, having forced Pompey's consent, sends them back to Caesar.
There should be no meeting with Pompey (the Senate could not allow an agreement between them); Caesar is promised a triumph and a consulate, but first of all he must clear the occupied cities, go to his province and disband the army.
Meanwhile, Ancona and Pisaurus were occupied by Caesar on January 14 and 15.
The hopes of the Senate and Pompey that Caesar would give them time to prepare were dashed.
It was difficult for Pompey, with his recruits and two Caesar's legions, to go on the offensive, and it was difficult to put everything on the line defending Rome.
In view of this, without waiting for the return of the embassy, Pompey leaves Rome on January 17 with almost the entire senate, having sealed the treasury, in a terrible hurry.
From now on, Capua becomes the main apartment of Pompey.
From here, he thought, taking the legions in Luceria, to capture Pitsen and organize a defense there.
But already on January 27-28, Pitsen, with its main point of Auxim, found itself in the hands of Caesar.
The garrisons of the occupied cities passed to Caesar; his army grew, his spirit rose.
Pompey finally decided to abandon Italy and organize resistance in the East, where he could command alone, where there was less interference from all sorts of colleagues and advisers; the senators did not want to leave Italy.
They left the treasury in Rome, hoping to return, against the will of Pompey.
Meanwhile, the embassy returned from Caesar with nothing; there was no hope of negotiations anymore.
It was necessary to force Pompey to defend Italy.
Domitius Ahenobarbus with 30 cohorts locks himself in Corfinium and calls Pompey to the rescue.
For the proceeds, the Senate promises the treasury demanded by Pompey.
But Pompey uses the time while Yu.
Caesar besieges Domitius in order to concentrate his forces in Brundusia and organize a crossing.
In mid February, Corfinium was taken; Yu.
Caesar hurries to Brundusium, where everything is ready for defense.
On March 9, the siege begins;
On the 17th, Pompey deftly diverts the enemy's attention, puts the army on ships and leaves Italy.
From this moment on, the fight is transferred to the provinces.
During this time, the Caesarians managed to occupy Rome and establish some semblance of a government there.
Caesar himself appeared in Rome only for a short time in April, seized the cash register and made some orders about the actions of his legates during his absence.
In the future, he had two ways of acting: either to pursue Pompey, or to turn against his forces in the west.
He chose the latter, obviously because Pompey's eastern forces were less terrible to him than the 7 old legions in Spain, Cato in Sicily and Varus in Africa.
It made it easier for him to act in Spain and the fact that his rear was covered by Gaul, and success at the very beginning was especially important and expensive.
The main danger was Spain, where Pompey's three legates — Afranius, Petreius and Varro commanded.
In Gaul, Caesar was detained by Massilia, who sided with Pompey.
Caesar did not want to waste time here; he left three legions to besiege the city, and himself quickly moved to the Sicoris River, where his legate Fabius was waiting for him, who was encamped against the fortified camp of the Pompeians near the city of Ilerda.
After long and tedious operations, Caesar managed to force the Pompeians to leave their strong camp.
By a rapid march and a brilliant detour, he made the situation of the enemy retreating to the Ebro so difficult that Pompey's legates had to surrender.
Varro, too, had no choice.
Here, as in Italy, J. Caesar did not resort to executions and cruelties, which greatly facilitated the possibility of the surrender of the troops in the future.
On the way back, Caesar found Massilia completely exhausted and accepted her surrender.
During his absence, Curio ousted Cato from Sicily and managed to cross to Africa, but here, after ephemeral successes, he could not withstand the onslaught of the Pompeian troops and the Moorish king Juba and died with almost all his army.
Caesar now faced a difficult task.
Pompey's forces were, however, weaker, but he completely owned the sea and managed to thoroughly organize the quartermaster unit.
A great advantage was also given to him by his strong cavalry, allied contingents of Macedonians, Thracians, Thessalians, etc.
The way by land to Greece, where Pompey had established himself, was closed; G. Antony, who occupied Illyria, was forced to surrender with his 15 cohorts.
It remained here to hope for the speed and surprise of actions.
Pompey's main headquarters and his main supplies were in Dyrrachia; he himself was stationed in Thessalonica, his army was in Perea.
Quite unexpectedly, on November 6, 49, Caesar sailed with 6 legions from Brundusium, captured Apollonia and Orica and moved to Dyrrachium.
Pompey managed to warn him, and the two armies faced each other at Dyrrachium.
The position of Caesar was unenviable; the smallness of the army and the lack of provisions made themselves felt.
Pompey, however, did not dare to fight with his not very reliable army.
Around spring, M. Antony managed to deliver the remaining three legions, but this did not change the situation.
Fearing the arrival of Pompey's reserve from Thessaly, Caesar sent part of his army against him, and with the rest tried to block Pompey.
Pompey broke the blockade, and inflicted a strong defeat on Caesar.
After that, Caesar had only to lift the blockade and leave to join his Thessalian army.
Here Pompey caught up with him at Pharsalus.
The Senate party in his camp insisted that a decisive battle was given.
The superiority of forces was on the side of Pompey, but the training and spirit were entirely on the side of the 30,000 th army of Yu.
Caesar.
The battle (June 6, 48) ended with the complete defeat of Pompey; the army almost completely surrendered, Pompey fled to the nearest harbor, from there to Samos and finally to Egypt, where he was killed, by order of the king.
Caesar pursued him and appeared in Egypt after his death.
With a small army, he entered Alexandria and intervened in the internal affairs of Egypt.
He needed Egypt as the richest country and attracted him with its complex and skilful administrative organization.
His connection with Cleopatra, the sister and wife of the young Ptolemy, the son of Ptolemy Auletes, also delayed him.
Caesar's first act was to install Cleopatra, who had been driven away by her husband, in the palace.
In general, he ruled in Alexandria as a sovereign master, as a monarch.
This, due to the weakness of the Caesar's army, raised the entire population in Alexandria to its feet; at the same time, the Egyptian army approached Alexandria from Pelusium, proclaiming Arsinoe as queen.
Caesar was locked up in the palace.
The attempt to find a way out to sea by capturing the lighthouse failed, and so did the attempt to appease the rebels by sending Ptolemy away.
Caesar was rescued by the arrival of reinforcements from Asia.
In the battle near the Nile, the Egyptian army was defeated, and Caesar became the master of the country (March 27, 47).
Late in the spring, Caesar left Egypt, leaving the younger Ptolemy as Queen Cleopatra and her husband (the elder was killed in the battle of the Nile).
Caesar spent 9 months in Egypt; Alexandria — the last Hellenistic capital and the court of Cleopatra gave him a lot of impressions and a lot of experience.
Despite urgent matters in Asia Minor and in the West, Caesar goes from Egypt to Syria, where, as the successor of the Seleucids, he restores their palace in Daphne and generally behaves like a master and monarch.
In July, he left Syria, quickly dealt with the rebellious Pontic king Pharnaces and hurried to Rome, where his presence was urgently needed.
After Pompey's death, his party and the party of the Senate were far from broken.
There were many Pompeians, as they were called, in Italy; they were more dangerous in the provinces, especially in Illyricum, Spain and Africa.
Caesar's legates barely managed to subdue Illyricum, where M. Octavius led the resistance for a long time, not without success.
In Spain, the mood of the army was clearly Pompeian; in Africa, all the prominent members of the senate party gathered, with a strong army.
There were also Metellus Scipio, the commander in chief, and Pompey's sons, Gnaeus and Sextus, and Cato, and T. Labienus, etc.
They were supported by the Moorish king Yuba.
In Italy, the former supporter and agent Yu became the head of the Pompeians.
Caesar, Caelius Rufus.
In alliance with Milo, he started a revolution on economic grounds; using his magistracy (praetura), he announced a postponement of all debts for 6 years; when the consul dismissed him from the magistracy, he raised the banner of rebellion in the south and died in the struggle with government troops.
In 47.
Rome was without magistrates; M. Antony ruled in it, as the magister equitum of the dictator Julius Caesar; troubles arose thanks to the tribunes of L. Trebellius and Cornelius Dolabella on the same economic soil, but without a Pompeian lining.
However, it was not the tribunes who were dangerous, but the Caesar's army, which was to be sent to Africa to fight the Pompeians.
Yu's long absence Caesar's discipline weakened; the army refused to obey.
In September, 47 Caesar again
