Gaius Julius Caesar
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Gaius Julius Caesar
Latin Gaius Iulius Caesar
A bust of Caesar from the National Archaeological Museum in Naples.
It was created around the reign of Trajan (the beginning of the II century AD) [1]
Dictator for life of the Roman Republic
from February to March 15, 44 BC Co ruler: Marcus Aemilius Lepidus Successor: the position was abolished
Consul of the Roman Republic
from January 1 to March 15, 44 BC Co ruler: Mark Antony Successor: suffect Publius Cornelius Dolabella
Consul without a colleague
from January 1 to October 1, 45 BC Predecessor: Gaius Julius Caesar and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus Successor: Consuls suffects from October 1 Quintus Fabius Maximus, Gaius Trebonius and Gaius Caninius Rebilus
The Dictator
46-44 BC Coruler: Mark Antony
Consul
46 BC Co ruler: Marcus Aemilius Lepidus Predecessor: Quintus Fufius Calenus and Publius Vatinius Successor: Gaius Julius Caesar
The Dictator
48-47 BC Coruler: Mark Antony
Consul
48 BC Co ruler: Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus Predecessor: Gaius Claudius Marcellus and Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus Successor: Quintus Fufius Calenus and Publius Vatinius
The Dictator
49 BC Predecessor: Lucius Cornelius Sulla Successor: Gaius Julius Caesar
Consul
59 BC Co ruler: Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus Predecessor: Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer and Lucius Afranius Successor: Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus and Aulus Gabinius
The Great Pontiff
63-44 BC Predecessor: Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius Successor: Marcus Aemilius Lepidus
Birth: July 12, 100 BC (-100-07-12)
Rome Death: March 15, 44 BC(-044-03-15) (55 years)
Rome Birth: Julia, Julia Claudia Father: Gaius Julius Caesar The Elder Mother: Aurelia Cotta Spouse: 1) Cornelia
(84-69 BC)
2) Pompeii
(ca . 67-62 BC)
3) Calpurnia
(59-44 BC) Children: daughter: Julia (from Cornelia)
son (in doubt): Ptolemy Caesarion (from Cleopatra)
Gaius Julius Caesar on Wikimedia Commons
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This term has other meanings, see Gaius Julius Caesar (meanings).
Gaius Julius Caesar (the authentic pronunciation is close to Kaisar; Lat.
Gaius Iulius Caesar [ˈgaːjʊs ˈjuːliʊs ˈkaesar]; 12 or 13 July 100 BC — 15 March 44 BC) — Roman statesman and politician, military leader, writer.
Consul of 59, 48, 46, 45 and 44 BC, dictator of 49, 48-47 and 46-44 BC, Grand Pontiff from 63 BC.
Descended from an ancient Patrician family, Caesar consistently sought all ordinary Roman positions (cursus honorum) and made a name for himself in the fight against conservative senators (optimates).
In 60 BC, he organized the first triumvirate together with two influential politicians Gnaeus Pompey the Great and Marcus Licinius Crassus.
Since 58 BC, he spent more than eight years on the territory of modern Switzerland, France, Belgium, Germany and Great Britain in the Gallic War, joining a huge territory from the Atlantic Ocean to the Rhine to the Roman Republic and gaining fame as a talented commander.
At the beginning of 49 BC, he began a civil war because of irreconcilable differences with the senators on the details of his return to Rome and on guarantees of judicial immunity for official crimes (bribery in elections, bribes to officials, violation of contracts, violent acts and other violations).
Within four years, the supporters of the Senate, grouped around Pompey, were defeated by Caesar in Italy ,Spain (twice), Greece and Africa, and he also defeated the troops of the rulers of Egypt and Pontus.
He adhered to the policy of mercy, but at the same time executed a number of his key opponents.
Having achieved a complete victory over his opponents, he concentrated in his hands the power of the consul and the extraordinary powers of the dictator (in the end — in the form of a lifetime position), carried out a number of reforms in all spheres of society.
During the life of Caesar, his deification began, the honorary title of the victorious commander "emperor" became part of his name, but he refused the power of the ancient Roman kings.
After the assassination of Caesar by a group of senators led by Marcus Junius Brutus, Caesar's great nephew Gaius Octavius took his name and received most of the inheritance in his will, later becoming the first emperor.
Caesar was treated differently during his lifetime, and this tradition was preserved in the Roman Empire: his name was whitewashed in every possible way by supporters of the rulers, and the oppositionists praised his victims and conspirators.
The personality of Caesar was very popular in the Middle Ages and Modern times.
In addition to political and military activities, Caesar is also known as a writer.
Due to the simplicity and clarity of the style, his works are considered classics of ancient Roman literature and are used in teaching Latin.
The titles Kaiser and tsar go back to the name of Julius Caesar, as well as the name of the seventh month of the year in many languages of the world — July.
Content
1 Origin and childhood 1.1 Origin 1.2 Date of birth 1.3 Childhood
2 The beginning of a political career 2.1 Marriage and service in Asia 2.2 Return to Rome and participation in the political struggle 2.3 Edilitet.
Presidency of the court 2.4 Election of the Grand Pontiff 2.5 Caesar and Catilina
3 Pretours.
Creation of the first triumvirate (62-60 BC) 3.1 Praetura 3.2 Governor of Distant Spain 3.3 Return to Rome.
Creation of the first Triumvirate
4 Consulship (59 BC) 5 Consulship 5.1 Gallic War 5.2 Proconsul and Rome
6 Civil War 7 Dictatorship 7.1 Establishment of sole power 7.2 Sacralization 7.3 Reforms 7.4 Murder.
The will
8 Personality 8.1 Appearance and general characteristics from contemporaries 8.2 Family.
Personal life 8.3 Religious views 8.4 Health
9 Literary activity 10 Caesar in culture 11 The image of Caesar in historiography 12 The works of Caesar and his successors 13 Comments 14 Notes 15 Literature 16 References
Origin and childhood[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Childhood and youth of Gaius Julius Caesar
Origin[edit / edit wiki text]
Gaius Julius Caesar was born into the ancient patrician family of the Julii.
In the V—IV centuries BC , the Julii played a significant role in the life of Rome.
Among the representatives of the family came, in particular, one dictator, one master of cavalry (deputy dictator) and one member of the college of decemvirs who developed the laws of the Ten Tables — the original version of the famous laws of the Twelve Tables[2].
Like most families with an ancient history, the Julii had a common myth about their origin.
They raised their family to the goddess Venus through Aeneas.
The mythical version of the origin of the Julii was already well known by 200 BC. [3]
, and Cato the Elder wrote down a version about the etymology of the generic name of the Julii.
In his opinion, the first bearer of this name, Yul, received a nickname from the Greek word "οουλος " (fluff, the first hair on the cheeks and chin)[4].
Almost all the Julii in the V—IV centuries BC wore the cognomen Yul, which was probably originally the only one in their family[2].
The branch of the Julius Caesars probably descended from the Julius Julius, although the links between them are unknown[4].
The first known Caesar was the praetor of 208 BC, mentioned by Titus Livy[5][6].
The etymology of the cognomen "Caesar" is reliably unknown and was forgotten already in the Roman era.
Aelius Spartianus, one of the authors of the lives of the Augustans, recorded four versions that existed by the IV century AD.:
"...the most learned and educated people believe that the first one who was so named received this name from the name of an elephant (which is called caesai in the language of the Moors), killed by him in battle; [or] because he was born from a dead mother and was cut out of her womb[7]; or because he came out of the womb of his parent already with long hair[8]; or because he had such brilliant gray blue eyes[9], which do not happen to people"[10].
Until now, the reliable etymology of the name is unclear, but it is more often assumed that the cognomen originates from the Etruscan language (aisar — god; the Roman names Caesius, Caesonius and Caesennius have a similar origin)[11].
By the beginning of the I century BC, two branches of the Julius Caesars were known in Rome.
They were in a fairly close, but not exactly established relationship with each other.
The two branches were registered in different tribes, and by the 80th BC they had a completely opposite political orientation, focusing on two warring politicians.
The closest relatives of the future dictator were guided by Gaius Marius (his wife was Julia, Gaius ' aunt), and the Caesars from another branch supported Sulla.
At the same time, the latter branch played a greater role in public life than the one to which Guy belonged[12].
Gaius ' relatives on the side of his mother and grandmother could not boast of kinship with the gods, but they all belonged to the elite of Roman society — the nobility.
Caesar's mother, Aurelia Cotta, belonged to the rich and influential Plebeian Aurelian family.
The family of Gaius ' grandmother Marcia traced its origin to the fourth Roman king Ancus Marcius[13].
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Gaius Julius Caesar
Marcia
Gaius Julius Caesar
Strabo Vopisk
Lucius Julius Caesar
Sextus Julius Caesar
Gaius Marius
Julia
Gaius Julius Caesar
Aurelia Cotta
Lucius Julius Caesar
Julia
Gaius Marius
Julia the Elder
Julia the Younger
Gaius Julius Caesar
(the dictator)
Date of birth[edit / edit wiki text]
Caesar's date of birth it remains a subject of discussion for researchers.
The evidence of sources on this issue varies.
Indirect indications of most ancient authors allow us to date the birth of the dictator to the 100th year BC.[14][15][16][17]
, although Eutropius mentions that during the Battle of Munda (March 17, 45 BC), he was 56 years old[18].
In two important systematic sources about the dictator's life — his biographies authored by Suetonius and Plutarch — the beginning of the text with stories about the circumstances of his birth has not been preserved[19].
The reason for the discrepancies in historiography was, however, the discrepancy between the time of Caesar's master's studies and the well known practice: Caesar occupied all the magistracies earlier than the normal sequence (cursus honorum) by about two years[20].
Because of this, Theodor Mommsen proposed to consider the date of Caesar's birth as 102 BC. [21]
Since the beginning of the XX century, other solutions to the discrepancy have been proposed[22][23][24].
Guy's birthday is also causing discussions — on July 12 or 13.
The fourth day before the Ides of Quintilius (July 12) is mentioned by Macrobius in the Saturnalia[25].
Dion Cassius, however, says that after the dictator's death, his birth date was moved from July 13 to July 12 by a special decree of the second triumvirate[26].
Thus, there is no consensus on the date of Caesar's birth.
The year of his birth is most often recognized as 100 BC (in France, it is more often attributed to 101 BC, as suggested by Jerome Carcopino[26]).
The dictator's birthday is equally often considered July 12 or 13.
Childhood[edit / edit wiki text]
The house where Caesar grew up was located in the Subura, an area of Rome that had a reputation for being dysfunctional[27].
As a child, he studied Greek, literature, and rhetoric at home.
Physical exercises, swimming, and horse riding were practiced[13].
Among the teachers of young Gaius, the great rhetorician Gniphon is known, who was also one of Cicero's teachers[28].
Around 85 BC , Caesar lost his father[29]: according to Pliny the Elder, he died while bending down to put on shoes[30].
After the death of his father, Caesar, who passed the initiation rite, actually headed the entire Julius family, since all the closest relatives of a man older than him died[31].
Soon Guy became engaged to Kossucia, a girl from a rich family from the equestrian class[32] (according to another version, they managed to get married; see the section " Family. Personal life").
The beginning of a political career[edit / edit wiki text]
Marriage and service in Asia[edit / edit wiki text]
In the mid 80s BC[comment. 1] Cinna nominated Caesar to the honorary position of flamin Jupiter.
This priest was bound by many sacred restrictions, which seriously limited the possibilities of studying magistracies.
To take office, he first had to marry an old confarreatio rite to a girl from a patrician family, and Cinna offered Gaius his daughter Cornelia[26].
Young Julius agreed, although he had to break off his engagement with Kossucia.
However, Caesar's assumption of office is being questioned.
According to Lily Ross Taylor, the great pontiff Quintus Mucius Scaevola (an opponent of Marius and Cinna) refused to hold the inauguration ceremony of Gaius[36].
Ernst Badian, however, believes that Caesar was still put into office[26].
As a rule, the appointment of Caesar is considered in historiography as an insurmountable obstacle to his further political career.
However, there is also an opposite point of view: the occupation of such an honorary position was a good opportunity to strengthen the authority of the ancient family for this branch of the Caesars, not all representatives of which sought the highest magistracy of the consul[26].
Shortly after his marriage to Cornelia, Cinna was killed by rebellious soldiers, and the following year a civil war began, in which Caesar probably did not participate[36].
With the establishment of the dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla and the beginning of the proscriptions, Caesar's life was in danger: the dictator did not spare political opponents and personal enemies, and Gaius turned out to be the nephew of Gaius Marius and the son in law of Cinna.
Sulla demanded that Caesar divorce his wife, which was not a unique case of proof of loyalty, but he refused to do it.
In the end, Sulla put Caesar's name on the proscription list, and he was forced to leave Rome.
Sources say that Caesar was hiding for a long time, handing out bribes to the Sullans who were looking for him, but these stories are unlikely.
Meanwhile, Gaius ' influential relatives in Rome managed to secure a pardon for Caesar.
An additional circumstance that softened the dictator was the origin of Caesar from the patrician class, whose representatives the conservative Sulla never executed[34][37].
Soon Caesar left Italy and joined the retinue of Marcus Minucius Thermus, governor of the province of Asia.
The name of Caesar was well known in this province: about ten years ago, his father was its governor.
Guy became one of the contubernals of the Term — the children of senators and young horsemen who were trained in military affairs and provincial administration under the supervision of the acting magistrate[38].
First, Thermus entrusted the young patrician with negotiations with the king of Bithynia, Nicomedes IV.
Caesar managed to convince the king to place part of his fleet at the disposal of Thermus, so that the governor could capture the city of Mytilene on Lesbos, which did not recognize the results of the First Mithridatic War and resisted the Romans[39].
Guy's stay with the Bithynian king later became the source of many rumors about their sexual relationship (see the section " Family. Personal life").
After successfully completing this assignment, Thermus sent troops against Mytilene, and soon the Romans took the city.
After the battle, Caesar was awarded the civil crown (Latin: corona civica) — an honorary military award, which was relied on for saving the life of a Roman citizen[comment. 2].
After the capture of Mytilene, the campaign on Lesbos ended[40].
Soon Termus resigned, and Caesar went to Cilicia to its governor Publius Servilius Vatia, who was organizing a military campaign against the pirates.
However, when news of Sulla's death came from Italy in 78 BC, Caesar immediately returned to Rome[41].
Return to Rome and participation in the political struggle[edit / edit wiki text]
In 78 BC, the consul Marcus Aemilius Lepidus tried to raise a rebellion among the Italians in order to repeal the laws of Sulla.
According to Suetonius, Lepidus invited Caesar to join the rebellion, but Gaius refused[42].
In 77 BC , Caesar brought to court the Sullanian Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella on charges of extortion during his governorship in Macedonia.
Dolabella was acquitted after the largest judicial speakers spoke in his support.
The accusatory speech delivered by Caesar was so successful that it was distributed for a long time in handwritten copies.
The following year, Gaius began the prosecution of another Sullanian, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, but he requested protection from the people's tribunes, and the trial did not take place[42].
Shortly after the failure of the trial of Antony, Caesar went to improve his oratorical skills in Rhodes to the famous rhetorician Apollonius Molon, Cicero's mentor[42].
During the journey, Caesar was captured by pirates who had been fishing in the Eastern Mediterranean for a long time.
He was held on the small island of Farmakussa (Farmakonisi)[en] in the Dodecanese archipelago[42].
The pirates demanded a large ransom of 50 talents (300 thousand Roman denarii).
Plutarch's version that Caesar on his own initiative increased the amount of the ransom from 20 talents to 50 is certainly implausible[43].
Ancient authors colorfully describe Guy's stay on the island: he allegedly joked with the kidnappers and recited poems of his own composition to them[44].
After the ambassadors of the cities of Asia bought Caesar, he immediately equipped a squadron to capture the pirates themselves, which he managed to do.
Having captured his captors, Guy asked to judge and punish their new governor of Asia, Mark Yunk, but he refused.
After that, Guy himself organized the execution of the pirates — they were crucified on crosses[45].
Suetonius adds some details of the execution as an illustration of the softness of Caesar's character: "He swore to the pirates with whom he was a prisoner that they would die on the cross, but when he captured them, he ordered them to be stabbed first and then crucified"[46].
During his second stay in the East, Caesar once again visited the Bithynian king Nicomedes[12].
He also participated at the very beginning of the Third Mithridatic War at the head of a separate auxiliary detachment, but soon left the combat zone and returned to Rome around 74 BC .
The following year, he was co opted into the priestly college of pontiffs in place of his deceased uncle Gaius Aurelius Cotta[45][47][48].
Soon Caesar wins the election to the military tribunes[comment. 3].
The exact date of his tribunate is unknown: the year 73 is often suggested, but the dating of 72 m [48] or 71 m BC is more likely[45][49].
From other sources, it is known that at this time in Greece, under the command of Mark Antony Creticus, there was a certain Gaius Julius, who was often identified with Caesar, but it is more likely that they were two different people[comment. 4].
What Caesar was doing during this period is not known for sure.
It is suggested that Caesar could have been involved in the suppression of the Spartacus uprising — if not in combat, then at least in the training of recruits[45][50].
It is also suggested that it was during the suppression of the uprising that Caesar became close friends with Marcus Licinius Crassus, who in the future played a significant role in the career of Gaius[50].
Gnaeus Pompeius the Great.
A bust from the New Carlsberg Glyptothek in Copenhagen
At the beginning of 69 BC, Cornelia, Caesar's wife, and his aunt Julia die almost simultaneously.
At their funeral, Guy made two speeches that attracted the attention of contemporaries.
First, public speeches in memory of deceased women were practiced only since the end of the II century BC, but they usually remembered elderly matrons, but not young women.
Secondly, in a speech in honor of his aunt, he recalled her marriage to Gaius Marius and showed the people his wax bust.
Probably, the funeral of Julia was the first public demonstration of the image of the general since the beginning of the dictatorship of Sulla, when Maria was actually consigned to oblivion[51][52].
In the same year, Caesar became Quaestor, which guaranteed him a place in the Senate[48][52][53][54].
Caesar performed the duties of a quaestor in the province of Distant Spain.
The details of his mission are unknown, although usually the quaestor in the province dealt with financial issues.
Apparently, Gaius accompanied the governor Gaius Antistius Veta on trips around the province, carrying out his instructions.
It was probably during the questura that he met Lucius Cornelius Balbus, who later became Caesar's closest associate[51].
Shortly after returning from the province, Gaius married Pompeia, the granddaughter of Sulla (she was not a close relative of the influential Gnaeus Pompey the Great at that time).
At the same time, Caesar began to openly lean towards the support of Gnaeus Pompey: in particular, he was almost the only senator who supported the law of Gabinius on the transfer of extraordinary powers to Gnaeus in the fight against pirates[55].
Caesar also supported the law of Manilius on granting a new command to Pompey, although he was no longer alone here[56].
In 66 BC , Caesar became the caretaker of the Appian Way[57] and repaired it at his own expense[58] (according to another version, he was engaged in repairing the road in 65 BC, as an aedile[59]).
In those years, the main creditor of a young politician who did not skimp on spending was probably Crassus [60].
Edilitet.
Presiding over the court[edit / edit wiki text]
In 66 BC , Caesar was elected curule aedile for the next year, whose duties included organizing urban construction, transport, trade, daily life of Rome and solemn events (usually at his own expense).
In April 65 BC, the new Aedile organized and held the Megalesian Games,and in September — the Roman Games, which surprised even the Romans who were experienced in entertainment with their luxury.
Caesar shared the costs of both events equally with his colleague Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, but only Gaius received all the glory[59][61].
Initially, Caesar planned to show a record number of gladiators at the Roman Games (according to another version, gladiatorial fights were arranged by him in memory of his father[62]), but the Senate, fearing a riot of many armed slaves, issued a special decree prohibiting one person from bringing more than a certain number of gladiators to Rome[61][63].
Julius obeyed the restrictions on the number of gladiators, but gave each of them silver armor, thanks to which his gladiatorial fights were still remembered by the Romans[59].
In addition, the aedile overcame the resistance of conservative senators and restored all the trophies of Gaius Marius, the demonstration of which was prohibited by Sulla[59][60].
In 64 BC , Caesar headed the permanent criminal court for cases of robbery accompanied by murder (quaestio de sicariis).
In the courts under his presidency, many participants in Sulla's proscriptions were convicted, although this dictator issued a law that did not allow criminal prosecution against them.
Despite Caesar's active activity in condemning the dictator's accomplices, the active perpetrator of the murders of the proscribed Lucius Sergius Catilina was completely acquitted and was able to nominate his candidacy for the consulship for the next year[64][65][66].
The initiator of a significant part of the trials, however, was Caesar's opponent, Marcus Porcius Cato the Younger[67].
Election of the Great Pontiff[edit / edit wiki text]
At the beginning of 63 BC, the great pontiff Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius died, and the highest position in the system of Roman religious magistracies became vacant.
In the late 80s BC , Lucius Cornelius Sulla returned the ancient custom of co opting high priests by the college of pontiffs, but shortly before the new elections, Titus Labienus returned the procedure for electing a great pontiff by voting in 17 tribes out of 35.
Caesar put up his candidacy; the alternative candidates were Quintus Lutatius Catulus Capitolinus and Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus [68].
Ancient historians report numerous bribes during the elections, because of which Guy's debts grew greatly[69].
Since the tribes that voted were determined by lot immediately before the election, Caesar was forced to bribe representatives of all 35 tribes[68].
Gaius ' creditors were sympathetic to spending on a prestigious but unprofitable position: his successful election testified to his popularity on the eve of the elections of praetors and consuls[70].
According to legend, leaving the house before the announcement of the results, he told his mother "either I will return as pontiff, or I will not return at all" [71]; according to another version: "Today, Mother, you will see your son either as a high priest or an exile"[72].
The vote took place, according to various versions, either on March 6[73], or at the end of the year[70], and Caesar won.
According to Suetonius, his advantage over his opponents turned out to be huge[72].
The election of Julius as the grand pontiff for life attracted universal attention to him and almost certainly guaranteed a successful political career.
Unlike Flamin Jupiter, the great pontiff could participate in both civil and military activities without serious sacred restrictions[comment. 5].
Although people who were former consuls (consulars) were usually elected as great pontiffs, there were also cases in Roman history when relatively young people held this honorary position.
Thus, Caesar could not be accused of becoming a great pontiff only because of exorbitant ambitions[74].
Immediately after his election, Caesar used the right to live in the state house of the great pontiff and moved from the Subura to the very center of the city, on the Sacred Road[69][70].
Later in 63 BC , Caesar participated in two high profile trials.
He first appeared as a witness for the prosecution against Gaius Calpurnius Piso in a case of extortion in the province (quaestio de repetundis), but he was acquitted.
Soon (according to another version, already next year[75]) Caesar defended the noble Numidian Masinta, but again lost.
The trial became infamous due to the fact that Guy, in the heat of legal disputes, grabbed the heir to the Numidian throne, Yuba (the future king Yuba I) by the beard.
It is unclear why Caesar insulted the influential prince: it could have been either a spontaneous outburst of anger, or a carefully russ a well read action that used the xenophobic sentiments of the Roman plebs[76].
After the conviction, Guy hid Masinta and managed to take him to Spain, which showed others the reliability of Caesar as a patron, ready to protect his clients at any cost[77][78].
Finally, the beginning of the trial of Rabirius is associated with the name of Caesar: according to S. L. Utchenko, it was Julius who was behind Titus Labienus, who brought the accusation[77].
Caesar and Catilina[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: The Conspiracy of Catilina
In 65 BC, according to some contradictory evidence of ancient historians, Caesar participated in the unsuccessful plot of Lucius Sergius Catilina to seize power.
However, the question of the" first conspiracy of Catilina " remains problematic.
The evidence of the sources varies[79], which gives grounds for some researchers to completely deny the existence of the"first conspiracy" [80].
Rumors about Caesar's participation in the first conspiracy of Catiline, if it existed, were spread by the opponents of Crassus and Caesar already in the 50s BC and certainly do not correspond to reality[81].
Richard Billows believes that the spread of rumors about the" first conspiracy " was beneficial to Cicero, and then to Caesar's political opponents[80].
In 63 BC, after his failure in the election of consuls, Catilina made a new, more famous attempt to seize power.
The possible involvement of Caesar in the conspiracy was debated in the ancient era, but reliable evidence was never provided.
In the days of the culmination of the crisis, Catulus and Piso demanded that Cicero arrest Caesar for complicity in the conspiracy, but without success[82].
According to Adrian Goldsworthy, by 63 BC , Caesar could count on legal ways to occupy new positions and was not interested in participating in the conspiracy[83].
A fragment of Caesar's speech in the Senate as presented by Sallust
"When the victor Sulla ordered to strangle Damasippus and other people like him, who had risen on the misfortunes of the state, who did not praise his act?
Everyone said that the criminal and power hungry people who shook the state with their rebellions were deservedly executed.
But this was the beginning of a great disaster: as soon as someone wished for someone's house, or estate, or just utensils or clothes, he already tried to make the owner appear on the proscription list.
And those who were pleased with the death of Damasippus soon began to be seized themselves, and the executions stopped only after Sulla generously rewarded all his supporters"[84].
On December 3, 63 BC , Cicero presented evidence of the danger of the conspiracy, and the next day a number of conspirators were declared state criminals.
On December 5, the Senate, which met in the Temple of Concord, discussed a preventive measure for the conspirators: in emergency circumstances, it was decided to act without court approval.
Decimus Junius Silanus, who was elected consul the following year, advocated the death penalty — a punishment applied to Roman citizens in the rarest cases.
His proposal was met with approval.
Caesar came next.
His speech in the Senate, recorded by Sallust, is probably based on the real speech of Julius.
Sallust's version of the speech contains both a widespread appeal to Roman customs and traditions, and an unusual proposal to sentence the conspirators to life imprisonment — a punishment that was almost never used in Rome — with confiscation of property.
After Caesar, Cicero spoke, objecting to Gaius ' proposal (an edited recording of his fourth speech against Catilina has been preserved)[85].
However, after the speech of the acting consul, many were still inclined to the proposal of Julius, but the floor was taken by Marcus Porcius Cato the Younger, who strongly opposed Caesar's initiative.
Cato also hinted at Caesar's involvement in the conspiracy and reproached the wavering senators for a lack of determination, after which the Senate voted to put the conspirators to death[86][87].
Since the meeting on December 5 was held with the doors open, the people listening attentively outside reacted violently to Cato's speech, including his hint about Caesar's connections with the conspirators, and after the meeting ended, they accompanied Gaius with threats[88].
Praetura.
Creation of the first Triumvirate (62-60 BC)[edit / edit wiki text]
Praetura[edit / edit wiki text]
As soon as he took office as praetor on January 1, 62 BC, Caesar used the right of legislative initiative of the magistrate and proposed to the people's Assembly to transfer the authority to restore the temple of Jupiter Capitoline from Quintus Lutatius Catulus to Gnaeus Pompey.
Catulus was engaged in the restoration of this temple for about 15 years and almost completed the work, but if this proposal was accepted, the name of Pompey would be mentioned in the dedicatory inscription on the pediment of this most important sanctuary of Rome, and not Catulus, an influential opponent of Caesar.
Gaius also accused Catulus of embezzlement of public funds and demanded to report on expenses[89].
After the protest of the senators, the praetor withdrew his bill[90].
When on January 3, the tribune Quintus Caecilius Metellus Nepos proposed to recall Pompey to Rome to defeat the detachments of Catiline, Gaius supported this proposal[90][91], although the troops of the conspirators were already surrounded and doomed to defeat.
Apparently, Nepos, the brother — in law of Gnaeus, hoped by his proposal to allow Pompey to arrive in Italy without disbanding his troops [92].
After a mass brawl provoked by Nepos in the forum, the resolute Senate passed an emergency law on the removal of Nepos and Caesar from their posts[90], but a few days later Gaius was reinstated[91].
In the autumn, at the trial of Lucius Vettius, a participant in the Catiline conspiracy, the accused told the judge that he had proof of Caesar's involvement in the conspiracy — his letter to Catiline.
In addition, during the interrogation in the Senate, the witness Quintus Curius stated that he had heard personally from Catilina about Caesar's participation in the preparation of the rebellion.
However, Cicero, at the request of Gaius, testified that he had told the consul everything he knew about the conspiracy, and thereby deprived the Curius of the reward for information and refuted his testimony.
Against the first accuser, Caesar acted very decisively, arresting both Vettius (he did not appear at the next meeting and did not present evidence of the praetor's guilt) and Judge Novius Niger (he accepted a denunciation of the senior magistrate)[93][94].
In December 62 BC, a celebration in honor of the Good Goddess was held in Caesar's new house with the participation of only women, but it was interrupted after a man, Publius Clodius Pulcher, secretly entered the house.
The senators, having learned about the incident, decided to consider the incident a sacrilege, and also demanded that the holiday be held anew and the perpetrators be punished.
The latter meant the inevitable public disclosure of Caesar's personal life, since it was rumored that Clodius arrived at Caesar's house in a woman's dress for his wife[95].
Without waiting for the trial, the pontiff divorced Pompeii Sulla.
The trial took place the following year, and Clodius was acquitted, because Caesar refused to testify against him.
Adrian Goldsworthy believes that Pompeii really had an affair with Clodius, but Caesar still did not dare to testify against the rapidly gaining popularity of the politician[96].
In addition, the majority of judges on the panel voted with signs with illegible inscriptions[comment. 6], not wanting to incur the wrath of supporters and opponents of Clodius.
During the trial, when Caesar was asked why he divorced his wife if he did not know anything about what had happened, he allegedly replied that Caesar's wife should be above suspicion (various sources cite different versions of this phrase[46] [98])[99][100].
According to Michael Grant, Caesar meant that the wife of the great pontiff, the high priest of Rome, should be above suspicion[101].
The British historian also points to another possible reason that accelerated the divorce — the absence of children for several years of marriage[102].
The Governor of Distant Spain[edit / edit wiki text]
Caesar's campaign in Distant Spain.
The blue dotted line indicates the approximate borders of the Roman provinces.
Modern names of ancient cities are indicated in parentheses, Latin names of provinces are indicated in italics in parentheses
At the beginning of 61 BC , Caesar was supposed to go to the province of Distant Spain, the westernmost in the Roman Republic, to rule it as a propraetor, but numerous creditors made sure that he did not leave Rome without paying off huge debts.
Nevertheless, Crassus vouched for Caesar with the sum of 830 talents[99], although this huge sum hardly covered all the debts of the governor[103][comment. 7].
Thanks to Crassus, Gaius went to the province before the end of the trial of Clodius[105].
On the way to Spain, Caesar allegedly said, passing through a remote village, that "I would rather be the first here than the second in Rome"[106][107] (according to another version, this phrase was uttered already on the way from Spain to Rome [108]).
By the time of Caesar's arrival, there was a strong discontent with the Roman power and large debts in the underdeveloped northern and northeastern parts of the province.
Caesar immediately recruited a militia of local residents to subdue the discontented regions, which was presented as the extermination of bandits[109][110].
According to Dion Cassius, thanks to the military campaign, Caesar hoped to match Pompey with his victories, although it was possible to establish a lasting peace without military actions[111].
Having at his disposal 30 cohorts (about 12 thousand soldiers), he approached the Herminian Mountains (the modern Serra da Estrela ridge) and he demanded that the local tribes settle on the flat territory in order to deprive them of the opportunity to use their fortifications in the mountains in the event of an uprising.
Dion Cassius believes that Caesar hoped for a refusal from the very beginning, since he expected to use this answer as a motive for an attack[111].
After the mountain tribes refused to obey, the governor's troops attacked them and forced them to retreat to the Atlantic Ocean, from where the mountaineers sailed to the Berlenga Islands.
Caesar ordered several detachments to cross to the islands on small rafts, but the Lusitanians killed the entire Roman landing force.
After this failure, Gaius summoned a fleet from Hades and with its help sent a large force to the islands.
While the commander was conquering the mountain Lusitanians on the Atlantic coast, the neighbors of the exiled tribes began preparing to repel a possible attack by the governor.
Throughout the summer, Propraetor subdued the scattered Lusitanians, storming a number of settlements and winning one fairly large battle[109][110][112].
Soon Caesar left the province and headed for Brigantia (modern La Coruna), quickly capturing the city and its surroundings[112][113].
In the end, the troops declared him emperor, which in the terminology of the middle of the I century BC meant recognition as a victorious commander[110].
Even then, Caesar proved himself a decisive commander, able to quickly move his troops[114].
After completing his campaign, Caesar turned to solving the daily problems of the province.
His energetic activity in the administrative sphere was manifested in the revision of taxation and in the analysis of court cases[99].
In particular, the governor abolished the tax imposed as a punishment for the support of the Lusitanians of Quintus Sertorius in the recent war.
In addition, it ruled that creditors could not recover more than two thirds of their annual income from debtors.
Given the difficult situation with the payment of loans and interest by residents of the province, such a measure turned out to be beneficial for both borrowers and creditors, since Caesar nevertheless confirmed the need for mandatory repayment of all debts[110].
Finally, Caesar may have banned human sacrifice, which was practiced in the province [108].
Some sources claim that the governor extorted money from wealthy residents of the province and robbed neutral tribes, but these evidences are probably based only on rumors.
Richard Billows believes that if Caesar had actually openly plundered the province, his political opponents would have immediately brought him to court after returning to Rome.
In fact, there was no prosecution, nor even hints of its beginning, which indicates at least the caution of Caesar.
Roman legislation of the first century BC provided for the responsibility of the governor for extortion, but did not establish clear boundaries between a gift and a bribe, and therefore sufficiently cautious actions could not qualify as bribery.
Caesar could count on substantial gifts, since the inhabitants of the province (especially the rich south) saw in the young aristocrat a potentially influential patron defender of their interests in Rome [115].
The extremely energetic defense of Masinta (see the section "Election of the great pontiff") showed them that Caesar would do anything to protect his clients [77].
Apparently, Caesar received the greatest income from civil activity in the southern part of the province, since the main military operations were conducted in the impoverished northern and northeastern regions of Distant Spain, in which it was hardly possible to enrich himself[103].
After the governorship in the province, Caesar significantly improved his financial situation
