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Lecture 21.
Russian culture in the XX century
Culture of Russia at the beginning of the XX century.
The evolution of Russian science and culture at the turn of the century reflected the complexity and inconsistency of the spiritual fracture in society, the inevitability of social conflict.
The state of anxious expectation among the Russian intelligentsia was accompanied by intense moral searches, which brought a unique atmosphere of unprecedented rise of scientific and creative achievements into the public consciousness of Russia.
It is not for nothing that the pre revolutionary era entered the history of Russian culture as a time of spiritual renaissance.
At the beginning of the century, scientific research was widely conducted in Russia.
The achievements of Russian scientists provided the needs of a rapidly developing national economy.
As a result, in a number of areas - physics, chemistry, physiology, medicine, geography, aircraft engineering, Russian science has reached the forefront of scientific and technological progress.
Physicist P. N. Lebedev discovered and experimentally proved the pressure of light on solids and gases (1907) and measured its values.
In the field of chemistry, great scientists who received world recognition in the second half of the XIX century - D. I. Mendeleev and N. N. Beketov, one of the founders of physical chemistry, continued their work.
During this period, the activity of the world class encyclopedist and thinker V. I. Vernadsky was distinguished by a special breadth of scientific interests.
He became the founder of genetic mineralogy, geochemistry, biogsochemistry, the doctrine of living matter, the theory of the biosphere.
In the field of exact sciences, the works of the Russian mathematician II.
E. Zhukovsky, who laid the foundations of modern aircraft construction, were of world importance.
In 1910, B. N. Yuryev designed a helicopter (helicopter).
In the same year, Ya.
M. Gakkel built a biplane aircraft, which showed high flight technical data during tests.
In 1903, the brilliant self taught scientist K. E. Tsiolkovsky published the work "The Study of world spaces by jet devices", in which the theory of jet motion was presented for the first time.
In the future, he developed the most important principles that later served as the basis for the implementation of space flights.
The most important studies of the Russian scientist I. P. Pavlov, who created the doctrine of higher nervous activity and founded the largest physiological school of our time, belong to the beginning of the XX century.
And in 1904, for his work in the field of physiology of blood circulation and digestion, Pavlov was awarded the Nobel Prize.
In 1908, this prestigious award was also awarded to the merits of the scientist biologist I. I. Mechnikov.
The main achievements in the historical science of this period are associated with the names of V. O. Klyuchevsky, P. N. Milyukov, N. P. Pavlov Silvansky, A. S. Lappo Danilevsky, A. E. Presnyakov, A. A. Shakhmatov and other scientists, their works have received worldwide recognition.
The creative upsurge in Russian philosophy at the beginning of the XX century entered the history of world culture as a Russian spiritual renaissance, which had a huge impact on the development of philosophical science.
The call for the revival of idealistic philosophy as opposed to materialistic concepts was proclaimed in the program collection of articles "Problems of Idealism".
It published the works of N. A. Berdyaev, S. N. Bulgakov, S. L. Frank, who departed from" legal " Marxism.
In 1909, the famous collection of articles by the Russian intelligentsia "Milestones"was published.
Its authors criticized the views of the leaders of the Russian revolutionary movement.
On the verge of centuries, in the collision of opposite trends and trends realism and modernism a unique phenomenon has emerged that has entered the history of world culture under the name "Silver Age" of Russian literature and art.
L. N. Tolstoy became a living symbol of the unity of Russian literature of the XIX century and literary processes of the early XX century.
His ethical views are expressed not only in literary works, but also in journalism.
Tolstoy's article "I cannot be silent!" (1908), where he protested against the cruelty of the government, had a huge public response.
The works of A. P. Chekhov, A. I. Kuprin, and I. A. Bunin, who continued the classical traditions of Russian art, also belong to this period.
Their works, according to contemporaries, reflected the general democratic ideals.
During these years, Fyodor Sollogub (F. K. Teternikov) became a popular writer, whose work combined features of modernism and realism.
Maxim Gorky (A.M. Peshkov) occupies a very special place in Russian literature at the beginning of the century.
The radical part of society enthusiastically accepted the famous "Song about the Petrel" and proclaimed Gorky the herald of the revolution.
Symbolism was a bright modernist trend in art at the beginning of the new century.
Originated in the 80s of the XIX century.
as a direction of French literature, he found adherents in many European countries.
In the 1890s, a wave of Russian symbolism flowed into this pan European trend with a fresh stream.
He was destined to experience the highest creative rise precisely at the beginning of the XX century, when a new galaxy of poets appeared in literature- "young symbolists" (Andrey Bely, A. A. Blok, V. I. Ivanov, I. F. Annensky, M. A. Voloshin).
The most convinced supporter and theorist of this trend was Andrey Bely (B. N. Bugaev).
He considered symbolism not just an artistic direction, but perceived it as a way of thinking and a way of life.
Russian fine art at the turn of the XX century was experiencing a period of rapid flourishing.
Among the realist artists, the first place, of course, belonged to I. E. Repin.
Interesting original paintings were also painted by his student V. A. Serov.
These years were also a fruitful period in the work of M. A. Vrubel, whose works are close to symbolist poetry.
A significant role in the development of Russian fine art at the beginning of the century was played by the association "World of Art", the founders of which were the artists A. N. Benois and S. P. Diaghilev.
A bright artist of this direction was K. A. Somov.
Musical and performing art in the first years of the new century was on the rise thanks to the work of musicians who became famous in the second half of the XIX century.
The leadership among them belongs to N. A. Rimsky Korsakov.
During this period, he worked a lot with the collectives of the Moscow private Opera of Savva Mamontov and the Mariinsky Theater and created such opera masterpieces as "The Tale of Tsar Saltan" (1899-1900), "Kashchey the Immortal" (1901-1902) , etc.
An important place in the galaxy of composers is occupied by a student of P. I. Tchaikovsky, S. I. Taneev.
He created a composer's school and educated many musicologists, conductors, and teachers.
During these years, the talents of S. V. Rachmaninov were extremely multifaceted; the talent of the great student of S. I. Taneyev, the composer and pianist A. N. Scriabin, flourished.
1909 was a turning point in the work of the then novice composer I. F. Stravinsky.
After the St. Petersburg premiere of his "Fantastic Scherzzo", S. P. Diaghilev, who was present at the concert, suggested that he write the ballet" The Firebird "for the" Russian Seasons " in France.
The first performance of the ballet, staged by M. M. Fokin, was held with great success in 1910 in Paris.
Russian architecture at the beginning of the XX century is experiencing a bright period of prosperity associated with the emergence of a new style of "modern".
In general, it is characterized by asymmetry and rounded lines, free layout and plasticity of forms, active use of the latest achievements of construction equipment and new materials (reinforced concrete, steel, glass).
One of the most significant Moscow architectural monuments in the Art Nouveau style is the hotel "Metropol" (1899-1903).
It is decorated with a huge majolica panel made according to Vrubel's magnificent work "Princess of Dreams".
The famous Russian architect F. O. Shekhtel worked in the Art Nouveau style, according to whose projects the mansion of S. P. Ryabushinsky at the Nikitsky Gate and the building of the Yaroslavl railway station were built.
At the beginning of the XX century, a new kind of art was born in Russia - cinema.
The appearance of the first stationary cinemas (illusions, electric theaters) dates back to 1903.
The first film show took place in St. Petersburg in May 1896 in the Aquarium garden.
In 1907, the St. Petersburg photographer A. O. Drankov announced the opening of a film studio, and the following year the first Russian feature film "Ponizovaya Volnitsa" ("Stenka Razin and the Princess"), created by director V. F. Romashkov, was released there.
The greatest development of film production was received in Moscow.
A. A. Khanzhonkov created the first film factory in Russia.
A significant part of the Russian repertoire in cinema at first consisted of primitive illustrations for textbooks on Russian history, as well as film adaptations of novels, legends and songs.
The most famous is the full length feature film "The Defense of Sevastopol" (1911) directed by V. M. Goncharov and A. A. Khanzhonkov.
The culture of Soviet Russia during the Civil War.
After gaining power in Russia, the Bolshevik leaders centralized the management of culture, art and science.
On November 9, 1917, the VTSIK and the SNK established the State Commission for Education under the leadership of A.V. Lunacharsky.
Its functions were defined in the Regulation on the Organization of Public Education in the Russian Socialist Soviet Republic, adopted by the Council of People's Commissars on June 18, 1918.
In accordance with this Provision, the People's Commissariat of Education was finally formed.
At the end of December 1918, the State Publishing House was established by the decree of the VTSIK.
Within three years, more than 1 thousand printing houses, paper mills, etc. were nationalized.
Private publishing houses were gradually replaced by party, state, departmental and trade union ones.
In 1918, they produced 38.4% of the titles of books in relation to the total volume of all printed products, in 1919 - 70.4% and in 1920 - 92.4%.
By the beginning of 1920, the work on the requisition and nationalization of libraries and their transformation into state scientific and mass libraries was completed.
In October 1917, the Union of Proletarian Cultural and Educational Organizations (Proletkult) was finally formed.
The goal of the Union was to create a special proletarian culture that denies the legacy of the past.
Up to 400 thousand people participated in the proletkult movement only in 1919, up to 20 own magazines were published, including "Horn", "Glow of Factories", "Proletarian Culture".
The theory of the so called "industrial art", whose exponents were V. I. Arvatov, O. M. Brik, S. M. Tretyakov, etc., was connected with the ideas of this movement.
They denied the continuity of culture, ideological functions and the specifics of easel forms of fine art.
The Soviet leadership also centralized the management of science.
The Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), headed by A. P. Karpinsky, in early 1918 declared its readiness to participate in solving the problems facing the Soviet Republic.
In 1918-1920, more than 40 independent scientific institutes and higher educational institutions (the Central Aerohydrodynamic, State Radiological and Radiological, Chemical and other institutes) were opened and were part of the Academy.
The Russian Academy of Sciences, with active state funding, was engaged in both applied and fundamental scientific research.
Under the leadership of P. P. Lazarev, the Kursk magnetic anomaly was studied.
V. I. Vernadsky and V. G. Khlopin headed the research and extraction of radioactive substances.
I. P. Pavlov continued to study conditioned reflexes, F. A. Zander to develop the theory of jet engines, N. I. Vavilov formulated the law of homological series in hereditary variability.
Problems were also solved in the field of probability theory, mathematical statistics, crystallography, etc.
In March 1918, the Scientific and Technical Department (NTO) was formed at the VSNH, where by the end of 1919 more than 200 academicians and professors (N. E. Zhukovsky, N. D. Zelinsky, A. N. Bach, I. M. Gubkin, etc.), more than 500 engineers and other specialists worked as permanent employees, consultants, experts.
As part of the NTO, there were 12 research institutes and a number of other institutions.
Employees of the department organized experimental production facilities, stations, conducted scientific and technical expertise, published the journal "Scientific and Technical Bulletin".
During the Civil War, the Commission for the Study of the Natural Productive Forces of Russia, established at the RAS in 1915, continued its activities.
Academicians V. I. Vernadsky, A. N. Krylov, P. P. Lazarev, A. E. Fersman and others participated in its work.
On their initiative, 20 specialized departments were created, on the basis of which they subsequently organized institutes, conducted mineral prospecting; the commission's developments were used in drawing up the GOELRO plan.
In the field of social sciences, the new government set a course for the introduction of communist ideology.
On June 15, 1918, the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR approved the Regulations on the Socialist Academy of Social Sciences (SAON).
Its activities were mainly attended by members of the Bolshevik Party V. D. Bonch Bruevich, A.V. Lunacharsky, N. K. Krupskaya, etc.
The head of the SAON was M. N. Pokrovsky.
The Academy was engaged in the study and promotion of Marxist theory, training of personnel.
In 1920, in order to study scientific methods in all fields of knowledge in the spirit of revolutionary Marxism, the Institute of Scientific Methodology was opened.
In November 1917, a Department of Arts was formed under the State Commission for Education, which solved the issues of providing assistance to artists, poets, etc.
The activity of the department was influenced by artists of the "left" direction, supporters of the creation of an"art industry".
In 1918-1920, according to incomplete data, 140 exhibitions were held.
Artists V. M. Konashevich, B. M. Kustodiev, V. V. Lebedev and others took an active part in the work on illustrations for the mass folk library.
Portraits of figures of the revolution and the creative intelligentsia were painted by N. A. Andreev, G. S. Vereysky, B. M. Kustodiev.
A. I. Kravchenko, N. I. Piskarev, V. D. Falileev worked in the field of landscape graphics, the image of future elements prevailed in his motifs.
Less often, specific images were created: woodcut "Armored Car" by N. N. Kupreyanov, linocut "Revolutionary Troops" by B. D. Falileev.
In painting, the main attention was paid to landscapes and still lifes.
Starting from April 12, 1918 (i.e., from the date of publication of the decree of the SNK "On Monuments of the Republic"), the so called Lenin Plan of monumental propaganda is being implemented, which provides for "replacing monuments to the tsar and his servants with new ones that should mark the great days of the Russian Socialist Revolution."
In accordance with the plan, about 40 new monuments were installed in Moscow and Petrograd in 1918-1920.
An important tool of Bolshevik propaganda was the political poster, which was characterized by laconism, conventionality of the image, clarity of silhouette and gesture.
V. V. Mayakovsky, M. M. Cheremnykh, V. I. Kozlinsky, V. V. Lebedev, Denis (V. N. Denisov), Moore (D. S. Orlov) and others took an active part in the creation of the political poster.
Much attention was paid to the formation of the Soviet musical art.
In the decree of the SNK "On the Moscow and Petrograd Conservatories" of July 12, 1918, the concept of "state musical construction" appears for the first time.
The Bolshoi and Mariinsky theaters, the Court Orchestra (State Symphony), the Synodal School, conservatories, music publishing houses, and musical instrument factories are transferred to the jurisdiction of the state.
The main attention of the Music Department of the People's Commissariat of Education was paid to the song genre, the processing of folk and revolutionary motifs, the creation of combat marches and military themed songs.
Many composers, performers, musicologists actively participated in the educational work - B. V. Asafyev, C. N. Vasilenko, A. K. Glazunov, M. F. Gnesin, F. I. Chaliapin, etc.
In the field of theater, the emphasis was placed on the opening of a large number of theaters and various kinds of studios.
In 1918, 45 professional theaters operated in Moscow alone.
In 1918, a Repertory Section was created at the Theater Department of the People's Commissariat of Education, which included A. A. Blok, V. E. Meyerhold, K. I. Chukovsky.
August 26, 1918 SNK
The RSFSR adopted a decree "On the unification of theatrical business", which provided for the nationalization of the theater.
In 1918, with the participation of M. F. Andreeva, M. Gorky, A.V. Lunacharsky, the Bolshoi Drama Theater (BDT)was founded in Petrograd as a theater of the heroic repertoire, A. A. Blok became its literary director.
In the propaganda work, a prominent place was given to cinema.
Only in 1918-1920, more than 200 chronicle and special films were released ("The Autopsy of the relics of Sergius of Radonezh", "Petrograd on the Guard of the Revolution", "On the Red Front", etc.).
agitparokhods and agit trains became a specific form of distribution of films.
Since 1920, the Department of Agitation and Propaganda under the Central Committee of the RCP(b) began to exercise control over the cinema art.
The leadership of the Bolshevik Party, along with concern for the development of culture and art, resolutely fought against the part of the intelligentsia that, in its opinion, was anti Soviet.
In the autumn of 1922, about 200 prominent scientists, doctors, engineers and writers were sent abroad from Russia.
Among them in the "philosophical steamship" were N. A. Berdyaev, P. A. Sorokin, N. O. Lossky, F. A. Stepun, etc.
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