Meteorology
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Meteorology (from the Greek. μετωωρος, meterosros — atmospheric and celestial phenomena and λογαα science) is a scientifically applied field of knowledge about the structure and properties of the Earth's atmosphere and the physical and chemical processes taking place in it.
Meteorologist of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the United States in Oklahoma at work
In many countries, meteorology is called atmospheric physics, which is more consistent with its current meaning.
A significant part of meteorologists are engaged in modeling weather forecasts, climate, atmospheric research (using radars, satellites, etc.).
Others work in government and military organizations and private companies that provide forecasts for aviation, navigation, agriculture, construction, and also transmit them on radio and television.
Automatic weather station in Heidelberg
Content
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1 History of Science 1.1 History of meteorology in Russia and the USSR
2 Sections of meteorology 3 Subjects of research 4 Technical means 5 See also 6 Literature 7 Notes 8 References
History of science[edit / edit wiki text]
The word "meteorology "is associated with the work of Aristotle called" Meteorology", a treatise on celestial phenomena.
Aristotle named his work based on the Greek expression "that meteora" — objects in the air.
He counted rains and comets, hail and meteors, rainbows and auroras among them.
Meteorology as a science arose after the invention of the thermometer by Galileo Galilei and the barometer by Otto von Guericke in the XVII century.
In the XVII century, a hygrometer, a rain gauge, a weather vane and an anemometer were also invented.
The Duke of Tuscany, Leopoldo de ' Medici, commissioned the Accademia del Cimento in Florence, created by him, to organize the collection of information about weather conditions in Europe, and in 1654, the duke's secretary, the Jesuit Antinori, organized the collection of such information from nine weather stations (mainly in Italy, the farthest was in Warsaw).
This network worked until 1667, when the Accademia del Cimento was closed.
In 1723, the secretary of the Royal Society of London, James Jurin, developed an instruction for observing the weather, which gave the form of a standard measurement table, a list of necessary instruments and a description of methods for measuring temperature, air pressure, wind strength and direction, which he sent to more than a hundred scientists in Europe
The second network of weather stations in Europe existed until 1735.
In Russia, a network of weather observation stations appeared during the Great Northern Expedition.
The instructions for the observers were written by Daniel Bernoulli.
During the period from 1733 to 1744, 24 weather stations were organized throughout Siberia.
In 1781, the first meteorological society in the world was founded in Mannheim by the Academy of Sciences and Fine Literature of the Elector Palatinate[de].
It supplied observers in different countries with the same devices, according to its program, 39 weather stations operated, from Cambridge in the USA to the Urals.
They were asked to set four points of measurement per day — at 7, 11, 14 and 21 hours.
In 1802, independently of each other, Jean Baptiste Lamarck and Luc Howard proposed their own cloud classification systems.
However, Lamarck's terminology did not enter scientific use, since he created it in French[1].
Howard, focusing on the nomenclature of the animal and plant world developed by Linnaeus, used the Latin language in his classification.
It was Howard who gave the clouds their now generally accepted names, distinguishing three main types: "cumulus" (cumulus), "stratus" (layered), "cirrus" (cirrus)[2].
Combinations of the main types allowed us to characterize four more types of clouds: "cirro cumulus", "cirro stratus", "cumulostratus", "cumulo cirro stratus", or "nimbus" [2].
After the conference of the main maritime powers in Brussels in 1853, at which the principles of meteorological observations at sea were discussed, the post of Meteorologist statistician was created in Great Britain under the Committee on Trade, to which Robert Fitzroy was appointed.
He was given several assistants.
This was the beginning of the first ever state meteorological department — the weather service of Great Britain[en].
During the Crimean War, on November 14, 1854, a storm broke 60 British and French ships.
After that, at the end of November, the director of the Paris Observatory, Urbain Leverrier, asked familiar European scientists to send him reports on the state of the weather in the period from November 12 to 16.
When the reports were received and the data was mapped, it became clear that the hurricane that sank the ships in the Black Sea could have been foreseen in advance.
In February 1855, Leverrier prepared a report to Napoleon III on the prospects for creating a centralized meteorological observation network with the transmission of information by telegraph.
Already on February 19, Leverrier compiled the first map of the weather situation, formed according to data obtained in real time.
In the UK, Fitzroy made it a duty for all captains of English ships to monitor the weather, note the temperature, wind strength and direction, take barometer readings and enter data into specially designed tables.
To do this, he sought to supply all ships with the necessary equipment.
24 meteorological stations were established on the coast of Great Britain, as well as in some European countries.
19 were in the UK, one in Copenhagen, one in the Netherlands, two in France (Brest and Bayen) and another in Lisbon.
The stations were connected to the weather service center by the newly invented Morse telegraph.
The weather information collected from these stations was analyzed in the weather service center and recommendations were made based on this analysis.
Recommendations were sent to the station by telegraph.
The first synoptic maps were released on the basis of which the weather forecast was made.
The Times newspaper has started publishing the first weather forecasts.
In 1873, the first international Meteorological Congress was held in Vienna, at which unified measurement dates and a unified telegraph code for transmitting meteorological data were developed.
Synoptic map of Europe 1887
In 1917, the Norwegian meteorologist Wilhelm Bjerknes proposed the concept of an atmospheric front.
The principles of frontological analysis were the main scientific basis for weather forecasts until the late 1940s.
Since 1930, radiosondes have been used to study the upper layers of the atmosphere.
However, it was possible to create a fairly frequent global network of aerological stations from which they were launched only after the Second World War.
As a result, in 1946-53, the justifiability of weather forecasts increased dramatically.
The next sharp jump in the growth of the justifiability of weather forecasts occurred in 1961-67, when computers began to be used for making forecasts, meteorological satellites began to be used[3]
The history of meteorology in Russia and the USSR[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Roshydromet
Tsar Alexey Mikhailovich was the first to try to establish regular observations of the weather.
At his behest, astronomical instruments and meteorological instruments were brought from Europe, including the invention of Evangelist Torricelli, a student of Galileo the barometer.
However, Afanasy Matyushkin, the son of a deacon, appointed by the tsar to keep records of the weather, did not use tools and recorded mainly his own observations in the "Diary Notes": when the rain began, when it ended, when the Moscow River froze, when the ice opened[4].
the end of the XVII century. (under Peter I)
- constant monitoring of the weather began.
1715 — the first water measuring post in Russia, by order of Peter I on the Neva River near the Peter and Paul Fortress.
On April 10, 1722, by the decree of Peter the Great, systematic observations of the weather began in St. Petersburg.
The records were kept by Vice Admiral Cornelius Kruis.
At first, the records were quite stingy with interesting information and looked something like this: "April, 22, Sunday.
In the morning, the wind is north west; the water is as high as mentioned above.
It is cloudy and frosty... at noon there is a small north west wind and rain in the afternoon.
Quiet and red day until the evening."
Later, the observations took on a more scientific character.
In 1724, the first meteorological station in Russia was established, and since December 1725, observations using a barometer and a thermometer have been carried out at the Academy of Sciences.
30s of the XVIII century.
- a network of 20 weather stations has been created ("Great Northern Expedition").
April 1, 1849 — the "Main Physical Observatory" (GFO) was established in St. Petersburg.
(Now the "Main Geophysical Observatory" named after A. I. Voeykov (GGO)).
1868 ... 1895 director G. I. Wild 1896...?
- director M. A. Rykachev 1913-1916 director B. B. Golitsyn
70s of the XIX century.
- mass development of a network of points of hydrological observations on large rivers and lakes.
January 1, 1872 the GFO began to create daily synoptic maps of Europe and Siberia and to issue a meteorological bulletin (the date is considered to be the birthday of the weather service in Russia).
1892 the "Meteorological Monthly" began to be published.
June 21, 1921 V. I. Lenin signed the decree "On the organization of the meteorological service in the RSFSR".
August 1929 resolution of the SNK of the USSR on the organization of a unified hydrometeorological service.
the creator and head is A. F. Wangenheim, Chairman of the Hydrometeorological Committee under the SNK of the USSR.
(In 1934, he was sentenced to 10 years of ITL)[5]
January 1, 1930 the "Central Weather Bureau" began its work.
Currently, a computer network is widely used for transmitting meteorological data, which has made it possible to improve the data compression algorithm used: instead of traditional alphanumeric codes, tabular oriented ones appear, the decoding of which is simpler[6].
Sections of meteorology[edit / edit wiki text]
Physical meteorology (development of radar and space methods for studying atmospheric phenomena) Dynamic meteorology (study of the physical mechanisms of atmospheric processes) Synoptic meteorology (the science of the laws of weather changes).
Climatology Aerology (science that studies the upper layers of the atmosphere up to several tens of kilometers from the Earth's surface) Aeronomy (the science that studies the upper layers of the atmosphere up to several hundred thousand kilometers from the Earth's surface)
In addition, there are such application sections as:
Aviation meteorology Agrometeorology Biometeorology (the science that studies the influence of atmospheric processes on humans and other living organisms) Nuclear meteorology (the science that studies natural and artificial radioactivity, the spread of radioactive impurities in the atmosphere, the influence of nuclear explosions) Radiometeorology (the science that studies the propagation of radio waves in the atmosphere)
As well as smaller sections, such as forest (related to fires), transport, construction and others.[7]
Research subjects[edit / edit wiki text]
physical and chemical processes in the atmosphere composition of the atmosphere structure of the atmosphere thermal regime of the atmosphere moisture exchange in the atmosphere general circulation of the atmosphere electric fields optical and acoustic phenomena.
cyclones anticyclones winds fronts climate weather clouds meteors
Technical means[edit / edit wiki text]
Weather Station Weather probe Meteorological rocket Remote sensing of the Earth
See also[edit / edit wiki text]
World Meteorological Organization Weather Forecast Index cycle Micrometeorology Active impact on hydrometeorological processes Atmospheric optics
Literature[edit / edit wiki text]
Khromov S. P. Meteorology and climatology for geographical faculties.
- L.: Hydrometeorological publishing house, 1964.
- p. 30. - 500 p. Gorodetsky O. A., Guralnik I. I., Larin V. V. Meteorology, methods and technical means of observations.
- 2nd ed.
- L.: Hydrometeoizdat, 1991.
- p. 8 — - 336 p.
— ISBN 5-268-00646-9.
Khromov S. P., Petrosyants M. A. Meteorology and Climatology.
Textbook.
- Moscow: Publishing house of Moscow State University, 2001.
- 527 p. Pasetsky V. M. Meteorological Center of Russia.
L.: Hydrometeoizdat, 1978.
Selezneva E. S.
The first women geophysicists and meteorologists.
L.: Hydrometeoizdat, 1989.
-184 p.
Notes[edit / edit wiki text]
↑ The Man Who Named the Clouds ↑ Go to: 1 2 RMetS ↑ A.Ugryumov.
"According to the Hydrometeorological Center..."
↑ And about the weather ↑ The missing Solovetsky stage, Vladimir Tolts, 25.08.07 on the website of Radio Liberty ↑ Gotyur I. A., Kostromitinov A.V. Technology of description and decoding of meteorological data based on the algebraic approach.
- Instrument Engineering magazine.
- Issue #1.
- Pp.
6-11 ↑ Kan S. I.
The ocean and the Atmosphere.
- Moscow: Nauka, 1982.
- pp.
71-72 — - (Man and the environment).
Links[edit / edit wiki text]
Meteorology in Wiktionary?
Meteorology on Wikimedia Commons?
Meteorology in Vikinovosti?
Meteorology and climatology article in the encyclopedia "Krugosvet" Russian State Hydrometeorological University (RSMU) Website of the Hydrometeorological Research Center of the Russian Federation Department of Meteorology and Climatology of the Moscow Center of the Russian Geographical Society Meteorological weather forecast in the cities of the Russian Federation How meteorologists predict the weather Pocket guide of an aviation navigator, METEOROLOGY Meteorological Dictionary of the Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences Meteorology and Climatology.
The course of lectures by Luke Howard and Cloud Names (English).
Royal Meteorological Society.
Verified on October 24, 2015.
Keith.
C. Heidorn.
Luke Howard: The Man Who Named The Clouds (1999).
Verified on October 24, 2015.
[hide] Meteorological instruments and instruments Actinometer * Albedometer · Anemometer · Balance Meter · Barograph · Barometer · Wind profiler (SODAR) · Wind Indicator · Heliograph · Hygrograph · Hygrometer · Lightning Detector · Disdrometer · Cloud Searchlight · Oblacomer · Icing Indicator · Whole Sky Camera · Lidar · Mareograph · Weather Balloon · Weather Booth · Weather Mast · Meteorological Rocket · Nephelometer · Nephoscope · Precipitation Meter · Pyranometer · Weather radar · Radar station · Radio theodolite · Radiosonde · Snow meter · Solarimeter · Thermograph · Thermometer · Transmissometer · Weather Vane · Evaporometer
Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meteorology&oldid=75465775"
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