Maya (civilization)
[edit / edit wiki text] Material from Wikipedia the free encyclopedia
Edits to this page require verification.
This is an unpatrolled version of the show/hide details page
Go to: navigation, Search
This term has other meanings, see The Maya is a Mesoamerican civilization, known for its writing, art, architecture, mathematical and astronomical systems.
The beginning of its formation is attributed to the pre classical era (2000 BC 250 AD), most of the Maya cities reached the peak of their development in the classical period (250-900 AD).
By the time of the arrival of the conquistadors, it was in deep decline.
The Maya built stone cities, many of which were abandoned long before the arrival of Europeans, others were inhabited even after.
The calendar developed by the Maya was also used by other peoples of Central America.
The hieroglyphic writing system was used, partially deciphered.
Numerous inscriptions on the monuments have been preserved.
They created an effective system of agriculture, had deep knowledge in the field of astronomy.
The descendants of the ancient Maya are not only the modern Maya peoples who have preserved the language of their ancestors, but also part of the Spanish speaking population of the southern states of Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras.
Mayan cities are included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites: Palenque, Chichen Itza, Uxmal in Mexico, Tikal and Quirigua in Guatemala, Copan in Honduras, Hoya de Seren in El Salvador — a small Mayan village which was buried under volcanic ash and is now being excavated.
The history of the culture of this people is usually divided into three periods.
The first period (from antiquity to 317) is the time of the emergence of city states, primitive slash and burn agriculture, the manufacture of cotton fabrics, etc.
The second period (317-987) — the ancient kingdom, or the classical period, is the time of the growth of cities (Palenque, Chichen Itza, Tulum) and at the same time the mysterious exodus of the population from them at the beginning of the X century.
The third period (987 - XVI century) — the new kingdom, or the post classical period the time of the arrival of the European conquistadors, the adoption of new laws, styles in life and art, the mixing of cultures, fratricidal wars, etc.
Content [remove] •1 Territory •2 History ?2.1 The early preclassic period (about 2000-900 BC)?2.2 The middle preclassic period (about 899-400 BC)?2.3 Late preclassic period (about 400 BC 250 AD)?2.4 The early Classical period (about 250-600 AD)?2.5 Late Classical period (about 600-900 AD)?2.6 The decline of the Maya civilization ?2.7 The post classical period (about 900-1521)?2.8 The colonial period (1521-1821)?2.9 The post colonial period ?2.10 Maya today
•3 Art •4 Clothing •5 Architecture •6 Trade •7 Writing and time calculation among the Maya ?7.1 The Mayan Calendar ?7.2 Writing ?7.3 The counting system of the ancient Maya
•8 The Mayan religion ?8.1 Time, space, the cataclysm of the Earth and a new era ?8.2 Gods and Sacrifices
•9 Political and social structure of society •10 Military affairs ?10.1 Civil strife and war ?10.2 Armament
•11 Mayan Cities •12 Mayan Kingdoms •13 Filmography •14 Notes •15 Literature ?15.1 Primary literary sources
•16 Links
Territory[edit / edit wiki text]
Currently (2015), the territory where the development of the Maya civilization took place is part of the following states: Mexico (Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan, Quintana Roo), Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras (western part).
Mexico (Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan, Quintana Roo), Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras (western part).
About 1000 Mayan settlements have been found (at the beginning of the 80s of the XX century), but not all of them have been excavated or studied by archaeologists.
About 3,000 settlements were also found.
History[edit / edit wiki text]
See also: Mesoamerican Chronology and Mayan Cities
Stucco bas relief in the Palenque Museum of the Early preclassic period (about 2000-900 BC)[edit / edit wiki text]
At the early preclassic stage of the Maya development, settlements appeared and agriculture developed in the areas of settlement.
The first buildings attributed to the Mayan civilization in Cueyo (Belize) are dated to about 2000 BC.
From this place, the Mayan tribes settled north to the Gulf of Mexico.
Hunters settled in Copan (Honduras) around 1100 BC.
At the early preclassic stage, the city of Lamanay (Belize) was founded, which belongs to the oldest cities of the Maya civilization.
Cajal Pech (Belize) was founded around 1000 BC, which existed until the VII century AD.
Middle Preclassic period (about 899-400 BC)[edit / edit wiki text]
In the middle preclassic period of development, there is a further settlement of the Maya, trade between cities develops.
Traces of settlements in the Tikal region (Guatemala) date back to BC.
On the Gulf coast, the first settlements and temples appear around 500 BC.
The first major Mayan cities are El Mirador (with the largest known Mayan pyramid, 72 m) and Nakbe, located on the territory of modern Guatemala.
Around 700 BC, writing appeared in Mesoamerica.
In the Mayan art of this period, the influence of the Olmec civilization, which arose in Mexico on the gulf coast and established trade relations with the whole of Mesoamerica, is noticeable.
Some scientists believe that the creation of a hierarchical society and royal power of the ancient Maya is due to the Olmec presence in the southern regions of the Maya region from 900 to 400 BC.
Late Preclassic period (about 400 BC 250 AD)[edit / edit wiki text]
The image of the earliest Mayan solar calendar, carved in stone, dates back to about 400.
The Maya accept the idea of a hierarchical society ruled by kings and persons of royal blood.
The foundation of the city of Teotihuacan also dates back to the late preclassic period.
Teotihuacan will be the cultural, religious and commercial center of Mesoamerica for several centuries, exerting a cultural influence on the regions and the entire Maya civilization.
Early classical period (about 250-600 AD)[edit / edit wiki text]
The earliest stele in Tikal, dating from 292 AD, depicts the figure of the ruler Kinich Eb Shok.
Around the year 500, Tikal became a "superpower", the inhabitants of Teotihuacan settled in it, bringing with them new customs, rituals, including those accompanied by sacrifices.
In 562, a war breaks out between the cities of Kalakmul and Tikal, as a result of which the ruler of Kalakmul captures the ruler of Tikal, Yash Eb Shok II, and sacrifices him.
Late classical period (about 600-900 AD)[edit / edit wiki text]
The Maya civilization of the classical period is the territory of city states, each of which has its own ruler.
The Maya culture, which has spread to the whole of Yucatan, is experiencing its heyday, during this period the cities of Chichen Itza (circa 700), Uxmal and Coba were founded.
The cities are connected by roads, the so called sacbe (sacbe).
The Maya have more than 10,000 inhabitants, which exceeds the population of the central European cities that existed at that time.
source not specified 1987 days]
The decline of the Maya civilization[edit / edit wiki text]
Already in the IX century AD in the southern areas of the Maya population there is a rapid decline in the population which subsequently extends to the entire central Yucatan.
Residents are leaving the cities, water supply systems are falling into disrepair.
Since the middle of the X century AD, stone structures are no longer erected.
Until now, the disappearance of the Mayan civilization is the subject of a dispute among researchers.
At the same time, there are two main points of view about the disappearance of the Maya civilization — the ecological and non ecological hypotheses.
The ecological hypothesis is based on the balance of the relationship between man and nature.
Over time, the balance was disturbed: the constantly growing population faces the problem of a lack of high quality soils suitable for agriculture, as well as a shortage of drinking water.
The hypothesis of the ecological disappearance of the Maya was formulated in 1921 by O. F. Cook.
The non ecological hypothesis covers theories of various types, starting with conquest and epidemic and ending with climate change and other catastrophes.
The archaeological finds of objects belonging to another people of medieval Central America — the Toltecs speak in favor of the version of the Maya conquest.
However, most researchers doubt the correctness of this version.
The assumption that the cause of the crisis of the Maya civilization was climate change, and especially drought, is expressed by geologist Gerald Haug, who deals with climate change.
In 2012, scientists from Yucatan and the University of Southampton published the results of a complex simulation according to which the Mayan civilization could have perished even as a result of a small drought.
Experiments have shown that the lack of fresh water in this region could begin already with a decrease in precipitation by 25-40 %, which was observed between 800 and 950 AD.
Such a decrease in the level of precipitation led to the fact that more water began to evaporate than the rains made up for, and this, in turn, led to a decrease in the amount of available water, a violation of the usual foundations of life and to the mass devastation of cities.
Also, some scientists associate the collapse of the Mayan civilization with the end of Teotihuacan in Central Mexico.
Some scientists believe that after Teotihuacan was abandoned, forming a power vacuum that has an impact on Yucatan, the Maya were unable to fill this vacuum, which eventually led to the decline of civilization[source not specified 474 days].
ElSalvadorP122-100Colones 1978 donatedth f.jpg ES100-1999 f.jpg Mayan Pyramid in Tasumal, El Salvador, on the columns
The Mayan Pyramid in San Andres, El Salvador.
1999 Post classical period (about 900-1521)[edit / edit wiki text]
Around the year 900, the inhabitants leave Tikal.
The cities of northern Yucatan continue to develop, but the cities in the south are falling into decline.
Around 1050, the destruction of Chichen Itza takes place.
In 1263, Mayapan was founded, which later became the main center of Yucatan.
However, in 1441 there was an uprising in the city, and in 1461 the inhabitants left it.
After that, Yucatan is again a territory of cities, each of which is fighting with each other.
Thus, the Chronicle of the Kakchikels describes in detail the history of the mountain Maya Kakchikels, their legendary arrival in Guatemala, the political structure, clashes with neighboring Mayan peoples, and also describes their capital Ishim, a general pestilence from smallpox in 1520 and the arrival of the Spaniards in 1524.
Colonial period (1521-1821)[edit / edit wiki text]
In 1517, the Spaniards appeared in Yucatan under the command of Hernandez de Cordoba[3].
The Spaniards import diseases previously unknown to the Maya from the Old World, including smallpox, influenza and measles.
In 1528, the colonists under the command of Francisco de Montejo begin the conquest of northern Yucatan.
However, due to the geographical and political disunity, it will take about 170 years for the Spaniards to completely subdue the region.
In 1697, the last independent Maya city of Tayasal was subordinated to Spain.
Postcolonial period[edit / edit wiki text]
In 1821, Mexico gained independence from Spain.
The situation in the country, however, is not stabilizing.
In 1847, there is a Mayan uprising against the authoritarianism of the Mexican government, known as the Caste War.
The uprising was suppressed only by 1901.
Maya today[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Maya (people)
Today, about 6.1 million Mayans live on the Yucatan Peninsula, including in Belize, Guatemala and Honduras[4][not in the source].
In Guatemala, up to 40 % of the population belong to the Maya, in Belize about 10 %.
Today's Mayan religion is a mixture of Christianity and traditional Mayan beliefs.
Every Mayan community today has its own religious patron.
The donations are poultry, spices or candles.
Some Mayan groups identify themselves through special elements in their traditional attire, in which they differ from other Mayans.
There is a small video essay showing the real life of the Maya Indians in all the countries of Central America today.
A group of Lecandon Maya living in Chiapas (Mexico) is known as faithful to the preserved traditional way of life.
Representatives of the group wear cotton clothing decorated with traditional Mayan themes.
Christianity had a superficial influence on the representatives of this group.
However, tourism and, above all, technical and economic progress are gradually erasing the identity of the group.
More and more Mayans are wearing modern clothes, using electricity, radio and television in their homes, and often cars.
Some Mayans, meanwhile, live on income from tourism, as more and more people want to get acquainted with the world and culture of the ancient Maya.
A special situation has developed in Zapatista controlled villages in the Mexican state of Chiapas.
These villages have achieved autonomy and self government in the recent past.
Art[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Mayan Art
The art of the ancient Maya reached its peak during the classical period (about 250 — 900 AD).
The wall frescoes in Palenque, Copan and Bonampac are considered among the most beautiful.
The beauty of the images of people on the frescoes allows us to compare these cultural monuments with the cultural monuments of the ancient world, so this period of the development of the Maya civilization is considered to be classical.
Unfortunately, many of the cultural monuments have not survived to this day, as they were destroyed either by the Inquisition or by time.
Clothing[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Maya Costume
The main garment of men was a loincloth (esh); it was a strip of cloth a palm wide, which was wrapped several times around the waist, then passed between the legs so that the ends hung down from front and back.
The loincloths of famous people" with great care and beauty " were decorated with feathers or embroidery.
A party cape made of a rectangular piece of fabric, also decorated according to the social status of its owner, was thrown over the shoulders.
Noble people added to this outfit a long shirt and a second loincloth, similar to a full skirt.
Their clothes were richly decorated and probably looked very colorful, as far as can be judged from the preserved images.
Rulers and military leaders sometimes wore a jaguar skin instead of a cape or fastened it on a belt.
Women's clothing consisted of two main items: a long dress (cube), which either began above the chest, leaving the shoulders open, or (as, for example, in Yucatan) was a rectangular piece of cloth with slits for the arms and head, and a petticoat.
Judging by the preserved images, the dress and skirt could be worn both together and separately; in the latter case, the chest remained open (probably, one or another method of wearing was determined by the social status of the woman or local customs).
The outer clothing, like that of men, was a cape, but longer.
All items of clothing were decorated with multicolored patterns.
Architecture[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Maya Architecture
Maya art, which found expression in stone sculpture and bas reliefs, works of fine plastic, paintings on walls and ceramics, is characterized by religious and mythological themes embodied in stylized grotesque images.
The main motifs of Maya art are anthropomorphic deities, snakes and masks; it is characterized by stylistic elegance and sophistication of lines.
The main building material for the Maya was stone, primarily limestone.
Typical for Mayan architecture were false arches, upward pointing facades and roofs with a ridge.
These massive facades and roofs, crowning palaces and temples, created an impression of height and majesty.
Trade[edit / edit wiki text]
Main Article: Mayan Trade
The Maya conducted a lively trade, they traded both among themselves, between different Maya states, and with other states, with the Aztecs in the north, the inhabitants of modern Costa Rica and Panama in the south[5].
Maya writing and time calculation[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: The Mayan Letter
The exceptional intellectual achievements of the pre Columbian New World were the systems of writing and time calculation created by the Maya people.
Mayan hieroglyphs served both for ideographic and phonetic writing.
They were carved on stone, painted on ceramics, they wrote folding books on local paper, called codes.
These codices are the most important source for the study of the Maya script.
They were first translated by the German scientist E. Fersman in the 1880s.
The recording of time became possible thanks to a combination of writing and thorough astronomical knowledge.
In addition to this, the Maya used "tsolkin" or "tonalamatl" - counting systems based on the numbers 20 and 13.
The tsolkin system, common in Central America, is very ancient and was not necessarily invented by the Maya people.
The Olmecs and the Zapotec culture of the formative era had similar and sufficiently developed time numbering systems even earlier than the Maya.
However, the Maya advanced much further in improving the numerical system and astronomical observations than any other indigenous people of Central America.
Mayan calendar[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Mayan Calendar
The Maya had a complex and fairly accurate system of calendars for their time.
Writing[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Maya (letter)
The first Mayan monument with hieroglyphs carved on it, discovered by archaeologists on the territory of the modern Mexican state of Oaxaca, dates back to about 700.
Immediately after the Spanish conquest, the Maya script was tried to decipher.
The first researchers of the Maya script were Spanish monks who tried to convert the Maya to the Christian faith.
The most famous of them was Diego de Landa, the third bishop of Yucatan, who in 1566 wrote a work called "Reports on affairs in Yucatan".
According to de Landa, the Mayan hieroglyphs were akin to the Indo European alphabets.
He believed that each hieroglyph represents a certain letter.
The greatest success in deciphering the Maya texts was achieved by the Soviet scientist Yuri Knorozov from the Leningrad Institute of Ethnography of the USSR Academy of Sciences, who made his discoveries in the 1950s.
Knorozov was convinced that de Landa's list was not an alphabet, but he did not reject it completely for this reason.
The scientist suggested that de Landa's "alphabet" was actually a list of syllables.
Each sign in it corresponded to a certain combination of one consonant with one vowel.
The signs connected together were the background tic recording of words.
In the West, Heinrich Berlin and Tatiana Proskuryakova made a great contribution to deciphering the hieroglyphs of the ancient Maya.
As a result of the discoveries of the XX century, it became possible to systematize knowledge about the Maya script.
The main elements of the writing system were signs, of which about 800 are known.
Usually the signs have the form of a square or an oblong oval; one or more signs can be placed together, forming a so called hieroglyphic block.
Many of these blocks are arranged in a certain order in a rectilinear grid, which defined the spatial framework for most of the known inscriptions.
Inside this grid, hieroglyphic blocks form rows and columns, the reading of which was subject to special rules[6].
Pictographic signs that depict, often in detail, animals, people, body parts and household items also have a great weight.
The counting system of the ancient Maya[edit / edit wiki text]
Main Article: Maya Mathematics
The Maya counting system was based not on the usual decimal system, but on the twentyimal system common in Mesoamerican cultures.
The origins lie in the method of counting, in which not only ten fingers were used, but also ten toes.
At the same time, there was a structure in the form of four blocks of five digits, which corresponded to five fingers and toes.
Also interesting is the fact that the Maya had a designation for zero, which was schematically represented as an empty shell from an oyster or snail.
The notation zero was also used to denote infinity.
Since zero is necessary in many mathematical operations, but at the same time it was unknown in ancient Europe, scientists assume today that the Maya had a highly developed culture with a good level of education.
Maya religion[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Mayan Religion
Among the ruins of Mayan cities, buildings of a religious nature dominate.
It is assumed that religion, together with the servants of the temples, played a key role in the life of the Maya.
In the period from 250 to 900 AD (the classic period of Mayan development), the heads of the cities of the states of the region were rulers who embodied, if not the highest, then at least a very important religious function.
Archaeological excavations suggest that representatives of the upper strata of society also took part in religious rituals.
Time, space, the cataclysm of the Earth and the new era[edit / edit wiki text]
See also: December 21, 2012
Like other peoples who inhabited Central America at that time, the Maya believed in the cyclical nature of time and astrology.
They imagined the universe divided into three levels — the underworld, the earth and the sky.
Religious rituals and ceremonies were closely connected with natural and astronomical cycles.
Repeated phenomena were subjected to systematic observations, after which they were displayed in various calendars.
At the same time, the task of the Mayan religious leader was to interpret these cycles.
In particular, according to astrology and the Mayan calendar, the "time of the fifth Sun" ended on December 21-25, 2012 (winter solstice).
The "Fifth Sun" is known as the "Sun of Motion", because, according to the ideas of the Indians, in this era there should have been a movement of the Earth, from which many would have died[the source is not specified 1582 days].
This date caused a lot of panic false prophecies and esoteric speculations[7].
This theory was especially popular in the New Era movement, where it was mixed with the Christian anti Pagan idea of the apocalypse[source not specified 1582 days].
Gods and sacrifices[edit / edit wiki text]
As with other peoples of Central America, human blood played a special role among the Maya.
According to the various household items that have come down to our days — vessels, small plastic and ritual tools we can talk about a specific ritual of bloodletting.
The main type of ritual bloodletting in the classical period was a ritual in which the tongue was pierced, and both men and women did it.
After piercing the organs (tongue, lips, palms, penis), a string or rope was passed through the holes made.
According to the Mayans, the soul and vital energy were in the blood.
The Maya religion was polytheistic.
At the same time, the gods were mortal beings similar to humans.
This version is supported by Mayan art objects, which depict infant gods, as well as deeply old gods.
In this regard, human sacrifice was considered by the ancient Maya as an act that contributes to a certain extent to prolong the life of the gods.
Human sacrifice was a common phenomenon among the Maya.
A person was sacrificed by hanging, drowning, poisoning, beating, as well as by burying alive.
The most cruel type of sacrifice was, as with the Aztecs, cutting open the abdomen and tearing out the still beating heart from the chest.
Prisoners from other tribes captured during the wars, as well as representatives of their own people, including members of the upper strata of society, were sacrificed.
The choice of time, order and method of sacrifice is still not clear.
It is precisely established that representatives of other tribes captured during the wars, including members of the upper strata of the enemy, were sacrificed on a huge scale.
However, it is still unclear whether the Maya waged bloody wars to obtain more prisoners of war with the aim of sacrificing them in the future, as the Aztecs did.
In the post classical cities in the north of Yucatan, the Mayan culture is undergoing changes.
Thus, the ruins of the cities of the civilization of the period of its capture by the Spaniards allow us to say that religion did not play such an important role for the Maya as during the classical stage of development.
The political and social structure of society[edit / edit wiki text]
The Maya were primarily strongly oriented in foreign policy.
This was due to the fact that individual city states competed with each other, but at the same time had to control trade routes to obtain the necessary goods.
Political structures differed depending on the region, time and people living in cities.
Along with the hereditary kings, there were also oligarchic and aristocratic forms of government under the leadership of the ayava (ruler).
The Kiche (Quiche or K'iche') tribe also had noble families performing various tasks in the state.
Also, democratic institutions took place at least in the lower layer of society: the existing procedure for electing a mayor every three years, the "Maya mayor", has existed, presumably, for quite a long time.
In the social structure of the society, any member of the Maya society who reached the age of 25 could challenge the tribal leader.
In case of victory, the tribe had a new leader.
This usually happened in small settlements.[source not specified 2445 days]
Military affairs[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Mayan Military Affairs
Feuds and wars[edit / edit wiki text]
The Maya often fought with each other.
Some historians even see this as the main reason for the decline of the classical Maya culture.
Wars in the ancient Maya civilization were fought for many reasons that served political, economic or religious purposes.
A frequent cause of war was the control over competing city states, so wars were waged with the aim of removing a rival dynasty from someone else's throne, putting a controlled ruler on it.
In a political sense, the main thing was the reputation earned in the war by the victorious ruler.
In the economic sense, the victory over the enemy gave access to new trade routes, and also a part of the population of the defeated city state was enslaved.
For religious purposes, the victorious war served as the capture of new people, who in the future were sacrificed at religious ceremonies.
It is noteworthy to note that the wars of the classical period did not aim at capturing the enemy's territory and annexing the conquered lands to the victorious city.
Thus, the formation of a powerful unified Maya state did not occur during the classical period.
Armament[edit / edit wiki text]
Main Article: Maya Weapons
Mayan warriors used war clubs, blowpipes, knives, spears, axes, macans and other weapons in battles.
Arrows and leaves were also used.
At the same time, the sheet was twisted into a tube through which arrows were fired at the enemy, often with infected tips.
Helmets were rarely used by the Maya, but the Maya used shields made of wood and animal skin in battle.
The Maya were also armed with wooden swords with flint blades inserted into them and devices resembling a sling.
Interesting devices, as a rule, are leather harnesses that were clamped with fingers or worn on the wrist.
They worked as an auxiliary catapult, for longer throws of short spears (darts), with the use of these devices, the throwing range was doubled.
Mayan cities[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Mayan Cities
[show] View this Mayan City template
Chichen Itza 2006 08 15.JPG
The Mayan kingdoms[edit / edit wiki text]
The Baakul, Mutul, Kanul, and Shukuup kingdoms are known, as well as several dozen smaller kingdoms.
Filmography[edit / edit wiki text] • "The Lost Kingdom of the Maya" — a popular science film made by the National Geographic Society in 1993 •Apocalypse — Apocalypto) - a feature film by Mela Gibson * The Fountain (The Fountain) — a fantastic feature film by Darren Aronofsky •2012 a fantastic feature film.
Director: Roland Emmerich • "The Mystery of The Maya" (English "Mystery of The Maya") — a documentary film by Barry Howells and Roberto Rochin, 1998 • " The Secret of the Maya rulers "(English " Treasure Seekers.
Code Of The Maya Kings") is a documentary film made by National Geographic in 1999.
• " Time Scale.
The lost cities of the Maya" (English " Time watch.
Lost Cities of the Maya") is a documentary film made by the BBC in 2003.
Notes[edit / edit wiki text]
1.
^ The cause of the death of the Mayan civilization has been determined 2.
^ The messengers of the apocalypse were tortured by thirst 3.
^ The chronology of the Mayans 4.
^ Ethnologue report for Mayan 5.
^ The Mayan people.
Rus Alberto, 1986.
Trade 6.
^ Maya writing 7.
^ Svetlana Kuzina.
Should we wait for the end of the world in 2012?.
Komsomolskaya Pravda (May 4, 2007).
Checked on February 7, 2011.
Archived from the original source on August 27, 2011.
Literature[edit / edit wiki text]
* Veretennikova, A.M. Mayan and Aztec cities / A.M. Veretennikova.
- Moscow: Veche, 2003 — - 208 p.
— ISBN 5-9533-0062 X. * Galich Manuel.
The History of pre Columbian Civilizations / Manuel Galich ;
Translated from the Spanish by M. M. Hurvits, G. G. Ershova.
- M.: Mysl, 1990 — - 408 p.: ill.
— ISBN 5-244-00419-0.
* Charles Gallenkamp.
Maya: The Mystery of a Vanished Civilization / Charles Gallenkamp ; Trans., comm.
and afterword by V. I. Gulyaev M.: Nauka, 1966.
- 216 p.: il.
* Gulyaev V. I. Ancient Maya: riddles of a lost civilization / V. I. Gulyaev.
- M.: Znanie, 1983 — - 176 p.
* Gulyaev V. I.
The forgotten cities of the Maya / V. I. Gulyaev.
- Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1984 — - 184 p.
* Gulyaev V. I. Cities of the Maya state / V. I. Gulyaev.
- Moscow: Nauka, 1979 — - 304 p.
* Gilbert E. Secrets of the Maya / E. Gilbert, M. Cottrell.
- Moscow: Veche, 2000 — - 161 p.
— ISBN 5-7838-0508-4.
* Drew David.
Maya.
The mysteries of a great civilization.
- Smolensk: Rusich, 2012 — - 416 p.: ill.
— (Series "Historical Library").
- ISBN 978-5-8138-1031-2 * Yershova, G. G. Ancient America: flight in time and space: Mesoamerica / G. G. Yershova.
- M.: Aleteya, 2002 — - 392 p.
- ISBN 5-89321-092-1 • * Yershova, G. G. Maya.
Secrets of ancient writing.
- Moscow: Aleteya, 2004.
- 296 p.
- The "vita memoriae" series.
- ISBN 978-5-89321-123-5 * Keram K. V.
The first American: The Riddle of the Indians of the pre Columbian era / K. V. Keram.
- Moscow: Progress, 1979 — - 336 p.
* Daggers R. V. Culture of the ancient Maya.
- Moscow: Nauka, 1971 — - 364 p.
* Ko Michael.
Maya: A Vanished civilization: Legends and facts / Michael Co.
- Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 2007 — - 237 p.
- The series "Riddles of ancient civilizations".
- ISBN 978-5-9524-2806-5 • * Kuzmishchev V. A.
The secret of the Maya priests / V. A. Kuzmishchev.
- Moscow: Molodaya Gvardiya, 1968 — - 368 p.
— (Eureka series).
* Leon Portilla M. Mythology of ancient Mexico / M. Leon Portilla / / Mythologies of the Ancient World / Ed. by I. M. Diakonov — - M.: Nauka, 1977 • * Rus Alberto.
The Mayan people.
- Moscow: Mysl, 1986 — - 256 p.
* Sodi Demetrio.
Great cultures of Mesoamerica / Translated from the Spanish by Z. V. Ivanovsky.
- Moscow: Znanie, 1985 — - 208 p.
— (Series "Translated popular science literature").
* Spence Lewis The Myths of the Incas and the Maya / Translated from the English by L. A. Karpova.
- Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 2005.
ISBN 5-9524-2004-4 * Miloslav Stingl.
Secrets of the Indian pyramids / Translated from the Czech by O. M. Malevich.
- M.: Progress, 1978 (2nd ed. - M., 1982).
- 280 p.
* Stuflyaev M. I.
History of the Maya Kingdoms.
* Talakh V. N. America original: Sources on the history of the Maya, Nahua (Astecs) and Incas / V. N. Talakh, S. A. Kuprienko ; Ed.
V. N. Talakh, S. A. Kuprienko.
- K.: Vidavets Kuprienko S. A., 2013 — - 370 p.
— ISBN 978-617-7085-00-2.
* Talakh V. M.
