Reforms of Peter I
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The reforms of Peter I are transformations in state and public life carried out during the reign of Peter I in Russia.
All the reformatory activity of Peter I can be divided into two periods: 1696-1715 and 1715-1725.
The peculiarity of the first stage was the haste and not always thoughtful nature, which was explained by the conduct of the Northern War.
The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for the war, were carried out by a violent method and often did not lead to the desired result.
In addition to state reforms, extensive reforms were carried out at the first stage in order to modernize the way of life.
In the second period, the reforms were more systematic.
A number of historians, such as V. O. Klyuchevsky, pointed out that Peter's reforms were only a natural continuation of the changes that took place during the XVII century.
Other historians (for example, Sergei Solovyov), on the contrary, emphasized the revolutionary nature of Peter's transformations.
Historians who analyzed Peter's reforms hold different views on his personal participation in them.
One group believes that both in drawing up the reform program and in the process of their implementation, Peter did not play a major role (which was attributed to him as a tsar).
Another group of historians, on the contrary, writes about the great personal role of Peter I in carrying out certain reforms.
Content
1 Public administration reforms
2 Regional reform
3 Judicial reform
4 Control over the activities of civil servants
5 Church reform
6 Religious policy
7 Financial reform
8 Transformations in industry and trade
9 Reform of the autocracy
10 Estate policy
10.1 The Nobility
10.2 The Peasantry
10.3 Urban population
11 Cultural transformations
12 Education reform
13 See also
14 Notes
Public administration reforms[edit / edit wiki text]
See also: Senate (Russia) and Collegiums (Russian Empire)
At first, Peter I did not have a clear program of reforms in the sphere of state government.
The emergence of a new state institution or a change in the administrative and territorial administration of the country was dictated by the conduct of wars, which required significant financial resources and the mobilization of the population.
The system of power inherited by Peter I did not allow collecting enough funds for the reorganization and increase of the army, the construction of the fleet, the construction of fortresses and St. Petersburg.
From the first years of Peter's policy, there was a tendency to reduce the role of the ineffective Boyar Duma in state administration.
In 1699, under the tsar, a Near Chancery, or a Council of Ministers, was organized, which included up to 8 trusted persons who managed individual orders.
This was the prototype of the future Governing Senate, formed on February 22, 1711.
The last mention of the Boyar Duma dates back to 1704.
A certain mode of work was established in the Council: each minister had special powers, reports and minutes of meetings appear.
In 1711, the Senate was established instead of the Boyar Duma and the Council that replaced it.
Peter formulated the main task of the Senate in this way: "To look at expenses throughout the state, and to set aside unnecessary, and especially in vain.
Money, as possible, to collect, because money is the essence of the idea of war."
Created by Peter for the current management of the state during the absence of the tsar (at that time the tsar was going on a Prut campaign), the Senate, consisting of 9 people (presidents of colleges), gradually turned from a temporary into a permanent supreme government institution, which was fixed by a Decree of 1722.
He controlled justice, was in charge of trade, fees and expenses of the state, supervised the serviceability of military service by nobles, the functions of Discharge and Embassy orders were transferred to him.
Decisions in the Senate were made collectively, at a general meeting and were supported by the signatures of all members of the supreme state body.
If one of the 9 senators refuses to sign the decision, the decision was considered invalid.
Thus, Peter I delegated part of his powers to the Senate, but at the same time assigned personal responsibility to its members.
Simultaneously with the Senate, the position of fiscal officers appeared.
The duty of the chief fiscal at the Senate and the fiscal officers in the provinces was to secretly supervise the activities of institutions: they identified cases of violations of decrees and abuses and reported them to the Senate and the tsar.
Since 1715, the work of the Senate was supervised by the Auditor General, since 1718 renamed the chief secretary.
Since 1722, the control over the Senate has been exercised by the Prosecutor General and the chief prosecutor, who were subordinate to the prosecutors of all other institutions.
No decision of the Senate was valid without the consent and signature of the Prosecutor General.
The Prosecutor General and his deputy chief prosecutor reported directly to the sovereign.
The Senate, as a government, could make decisions, but an administrative apparatus was required for their execution.
In 1717-1721, the reform of the executive management bodies was carried out, as a result of which, in parallel with the system of orders[2] with their vague functions, 13 colleges were created on the Swedish model — the forerunners of future ministries.
Unlike the orders, the functions and spheres of activity of each board were strictly delimited, and relations in the board itself were based on the principle of collegiality of decisions.
Were introduced:
The Board of Foreign (Foreign) Affairs replaced the Embassy Order, that is, it was in charge of foreign policy.
Military College (Military) — recruitment, armament, equipment and training of the land army.
Admiralty Board — naval affairs, fleet.
The patrimonial board replaced the Local Order, that is, it was in charge of noble land ownership (land lawsuits, transactions for the purchase and sale of land and peasants, the search for fugitives were considered).
It was founded in 1721.
The Chamber Board is the collection of state revenues.
Staff Office Board was in charge of state expenses,
Audit Board control of the collection and expenditure of state funds.
Commerce Board — issues of shipping, customs and foreign trade.
Berg Collegium — mining and metallurgical business (mining and factory industry).
Manufactory board — light industry (manufactories, that is, enterprises based on the division of manual labor).
The Judicial Board was in charge of civil proceedings (a Serf Office operated under it: it registered various acts — bills of sale, on the sale of patrimony, spiritual wills, debt obligations).
She was engaged in civil and criminal court.
The Ecclesiastical College or the Most Holy Governing Synod managed(a) church affairs, replaced (a) the patriarch.
It was founded in 1721.
This board includes representatives of the highest clergy.
Since their appointment was carried out by the tsar, and the decisions were approved by him, we can say that the Russian emperor became the de facto head of the Russian Orthodox Church.
The actions of the Synod on behalf of the highest secular power were controlled by the chief prosecutor — a civil official appointed by the tsar.
By a special decree, Peter I ordered the priests to carry out an enlightening mission among the peasants: to read them sermons, instructions, teach children prayers, educate them to respect the tsar and the church.
The Little Russian Collegium exercised control over the actions of the hetman, who owned the power in Ukraine, because there was a special regime of local government there.
After the death of Hetman I. I. Skoropadsky in 1722, new elections of the hetman were prohibited, and the hetman was appointed for the first time by a royal decree.
The board was headed by a tsarist officer.
From February 28, 1720, the General Regulations introduced a unified system of office work in the state apparatus for the whole country.
According to the regulations, the board consisted of the president, 4-5 advisers and 4 assessors.
The central place in the management system was occupied by the secret police: the Preobrazhensky order (in charge of cases of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery.
These institutions were under the jurisdiction of the Emperor himself.
In addition, there was a Salt Office, a Copper Department, a Boundary Office.
The" first " colleges were called the Military, Admiralty and Foreign Affairs.
There were two institutions with the rights of colleges: the Synod and the Chief Magistrate.
The collegiums were subordinate to the Senate, and the provincial, provincial and district administrations were subordinate to them.
The results of the management reform of Peter I are ambiguously considered by historians.
Regional reform[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: The regional reform of Peter the Great
In 1708-1711, a regional reform was carried out in order to strengthen the vertical of power in the field and better provide the army with supplies and recruits.
In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces headed by governors endowed with full judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingermandland (later St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberia.
The Moscow province provided more than a third of the revenues to the treasury, followed by the Kazan province.
The governors were also in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province.
In 1710, new administrative units appeared shares that united 5,536 households.
The first regional reform did not solve the tasks set, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the cost of their maintenance.
In 1719-1720, the second regional reform was carried out, which eliminated the shares.
The provinces were divided into 50 provinces headed by voivodes, and the provinces into districts headed by Zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Board.
Only military and judicial cases remained under the jurisdiction of the governor.
Judicial reform[edit / edit wiki text]
Under Peter, the judicial system underwent radical changes.
The functions of the Supreme Court were assigned to the Senate and the Judicial Board.
Below them were: in the provinces — hofgerichts or court courts of appeal in large cities, and provincial collegial lower courts.
Provincial courts conducted civil and criminal cases of all categories of peasants, except for monastic ones, as well as citizens who were not included in the posad.
The judicial cases of the citizens included in the posad were conducted by the magistrate since 1721.
In other cases, the so called sole court acted (the cases were decided by the zemstvo or city judge alone).
However, in 1722, the lower courts were replaced by provincial courts headed by the voivode.
The judges were also separated from the administration.
Control over the activities of civil servants[edit / edit wiki text]
To control the execution of decisions on the ground and reduce rampant corruption, since 1711, the post of fiscal officers was established, who were supposed to "secretly check, inform and expose" all abuses, both higher and lower officials, pursue embezzlement, bribery, and accept denunciations from private individuals.
At the head of the fiscal officers was the chief fiscal, who was appointed by the emperor and obeyed him.
The Chief Fiscal was a member of the Senate and kept in touch with subordinate fiscal officers through the fiscal desk of the Senate Office.
Denunciations were considered and reported monthly to the Senate by the Chamber of Justice a special judicial presence of four judges and two senators (existed in 1712-1719) [5][6].
In 1719-1723, the fiscal officers were subordinate to the Judicial Board, with the establishment of the Prosecutor General's office in January 1722, they were supervised by him.
Since 1723, the chief fiscal was the general fiscal, appointed by the sovereign, and his assistant was the chief fiscal, appointed by the Senate.
In this regard, the fiscal service left the subordination of the Justices of the Collegium and regained departmental independence.
The vertical of fiscal control was brought to the level of the city[5][6].
Ordinary Streltsy in 1674.
Lithography from the book of the XIX century.
Military reform
Main article: The Army of Peter the Great
The reform of the army, in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new system, reformed according to a foreign model, was started long before Peter I, even under Alexey I.
However, the combat capability of this army was low[7] The reform of the army and the creation of the fleet became necessary conditions for victory in the Northern War of 1700-1721.
In preparation for the war with Sweden, Peter ordered in 1699 to make a general recruitment and begin training soldiers according to the model established by the Preobrazhentsev and Semyonovtsev.
This first recruitment gave 29 infantry regiments and two dragoons.
In 1705, every 20 yards had to put up one recruit for life service.
Subsequently, recruits began to be taken from a certain number of male souls among the peasants.
Recruitment to the navy, as well as to the army, was carried out from recruits.
An ordinary soldier of an army infantry regiment in 1720-32.
Lithography from the book of the XIX century.
If at first there were mainly foreign specialists among the officers, then after the beginning of the navigation, artillery, and engineering schools, the growth of the army was satisfied by Russian officers from the noble class.
In 1715, the Naval Academy was opened in St. Petersburg.
In 1716, a Military Charter was issued, which strictly defined the service, rights and duties of the military.
— As a result of the reforms, a strong regular army and a powerful navy were created, which Russia simply did not have before.
By the end of Peter's reign, the number of regular ground troops reached 210 thousand (of which there were 2,600 in the guard, 41,560 in the cavalry, 75 thousand in the infantry, 14 thousand in the garrisons) and up to 110 thousand irregular troops.
The fleet consisted of 48 ships of the line; 787 galleys and other vessels; there were almost 30 thousand people on all ships[8]
Church reform[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: The Church Reform of Peter the Great
One of the transformations of Peter I was the reform of church administration carried out by him, aimed at eliminating the church jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian church hierarchy to the Emperor.
In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I, instead of convening a council to elect a new patriarch, temporarily placed Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan at the head of the clergy, who received the new title of Guardian of the Patriarchal throne or "Exarch".
To manage the property of the patriarchal and episcopal houses, as well as monasteries, including the peasants belonging to them (about 795 thousand), the Monastic Order was restored, headed by I. A. Musin Pushkin, who again began to be in charge of the trial of monastic peasants and control the income from church and monastic land holdings.
In 1701, a series of decrees was issued to reform the management of church and monastery possessions and the organization of monastic life; the most important were the decrees of January 24 and 31, 1701.
In 1721, Peter approved the Spiritual Regulations, the preparation of which was entrusted to the Pskov bishop, the tsar's confidant Feofan Prokopovich of Little Russia.
As a result, there was a radical reform of the church, which eliminated the autonomy of the clergy and completely subordinated it to the state.
In Russia, the patriarchate was abolished and a Spiritual Board was established, soon renamed the Holy Synod, which was recognized by the Eastern patriarchs as equally honest to the patriarch All members of the Synod were appointed by the Emperor and took an oath of allegiance to him upon taking office.
The wartime stimulated the withdrawal of valuables from the monastery vaults.
Peter did not go to the complete secularization of the church and monastery possessions, which was carried out much later, at the beginning of the reign of Catherine II.
Religious policy[edit / edit wiki text]
The era of Peter was marked by a tendency towards greater religious tolerance.
Peter terminated the "12 articles" adopted by Sophia, according to which Old Believers who refused to renounce the "schism" were subject to burning at the stake.
The "schismatics" were allowed to profess their faith, provided that the existing state order was recognized and taxes were paid in double amounts Full freedom of faith was granted to foreigners who came to Russia, restrictions on the communication of Orthodox Christians with Christians of other faiths were lifted (in particular, interfaith marriages were allowed).
Nevertheless, after an armed clash with the monastic brethren in the Polotsk Basilian monastery on the territory of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth, which occurred during Vespers on July 11, 1705, and in which four Uniates were mortally wounded, Peter ordered one of the monks who had denounced him to be hanged.
10].
Financial reform[edit / edit wiki text]
A ruble in silver.
1723
Main article: Financial reform of Peter the Great
The Azov campaigns, the Northern War of 1700-1721 and the maintenance of a permanent recruiting army created by Peter I required huge funds, which were collected by financial reforms.
At the first stage, everything was reduced to finding new sources of funds.
To the traditional customs and tavern levies were added fees and benefits from the monopolization of the sale of certain goods (salt, alcohol, tar, bristles, etc.), indirect taxes (bath, fish, horse taxes, tax on oak coffins, etc.), the mandatory use of stamp paper, the minting of smaller coins (spoilage).
In 1704, Peter carried out a monetary reform, as a result of which the main monetary unit was not money, but a penny.
From now on, it became equal not to ½ money, but to 2 money, and this word first appeared on coins.
At the same time, the non exchangeable ruble, which had been a conditional monetary unit since the XV century, equated to 68 grams of pure silver and used as a standard for exchange operations, was also abolished.
The most important measure in the course of the financial reform was the introduction of a poll tax instead of the previously existing household taxation.
In 1710, a "household" census was conducted, which showed a decrease in the number of courtyards.
One of the reasons for this decrease was that in order to reduce taxes, several courtyards were surrounded by one fence, and one gate was made (this was considered one yard at the census).
Due to these shortcomings, it was decided to switch to the poll tax.
In 1718-1724, a second census of the population was conducted in parallel with the revision of the population (revision of the census), which began in 1722.
According to this audit, 5,967,313 people turned out to be taxable persons.
Based on the data obtained, the government divided by the population the amount of money needed to maintain the army and navy.
10 rubles in gold with the profile of Peter.
1706
As a result, the amount of the poll tax was determined: serfs of landowners paid 74 kopecks to the state, state peasants — 1 ruble 14 kopecks (since they did not pay the dues), the urban population — 1 ruble 20 kopecks.
Only men were taxed, regardless of age.
The nobility, clergy, as well as soldiers and Cossacks were exempt from the poll tax.
The soul was counted — between audits, the deceased were not excluded from the tax lists, newborns were not included, as a result, the tax burden was distributed unevenly.
As a result of the tax reform, the size of the treasury was significantly increased.
If in 1710 the income extended to 3,134,000 rubles, then in 1725 it was 10,186,707 rubles.
(according to foreign information up to 7,859,833 rubles.).
Transformations in industry and trade[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Industry and Trade under Peter I
Having realized the technical backwardness of Russia during the Great Embassy, Peter could not ignore the problem of reforming Russian industry.
In addition, the creation of its own industry was dictated by military needs, as indicated by a number of historians[11].
Having started the Northern War with Sweden for the sake of gaining access to the sea and having proclaimed as a task the construction of a modern fleet in the Baltic (and even earlier — in the Azov), Peter was forced to build manufactories designed to meet the sharply increased needs of the army and navy.
One of the main problems was the lack of qualified craftsmen.
Russian Russian Tsar solved this problem by attracting foreigners to the Russian service on favorable terms, sending Russian nobles to study in Western Europe.
The manufacturers received great privileges: they were exempt from military service with their children and craftsmen, were subject only to the court of the Manufactory Board, got rid of taxes and internal duties, could bring the tools and materials they needed from abroad duty free, their homes were exempt from military post.
The first Russian silver smelter was built near Nerchinsk in Siberia in 1704.
The following year, he gave the first silver.
Significant measures were taken for the geological exploration of mineral resources in Russia.
Previously, the Russian state was completely dependent on foreign countries for raw materials, primarily Sweden (iron was transported from there), but after the discovery of deposits of iron ore and other minerals in the Urals, there was no need to purchase iron.
In the Urals, in 1723, the largest iron making plant in Russia was founded, from which the city of Yekaterinburg developed.
Under Peter, Nevyansk, Kamensk Uralsky, Nizhny Tagil were founded.
There are gun factories (cannon yards, arsenals) in the Olonets region, Sestroretsk and Tula, powder factories — in St. Petersburg and near Moscow, the leather and textile industry is developing — in Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kazan and on the Left Bank of Ukraine, which was caused by the need to produce equipment and uniforms for Russian troops, there is silk spinning, paper production, cement, sugar factory and trellis factory.
In 1719, the "Berg privilege" was published, according to which everyone was given the right to search everywhere, melt, cook and clean metals and minerals, provided that the "mining tax" was paid in 1/10 of the cost of mining and 32 shares in favor of the owner of the land where ore deposits were found.
For hiding ore and trying to prevent mining, the owner was threatened with confiscation of land, corporal punishment and even the death penalty "through the fault of the state".
Digging of the Ladoga Canal
Map of the Canal of Emperor Peter the Great (1741-42)
The main problem in the Russian manufactories of that time was the lack of labor.
The problem was solved by violent measures: entire villages and villages were attributed to the manufactories, the peasants of which worked off their taxes to the state at the manufactories (such peasants will be called attributed), criminals and beggars were sent to the factories.
In 1721, a decree followed, which allowed "merchant people" to buy villages, whose peasants could be relocated to manufactories (such peasants would be called posession ones).
Trade was further developed.
With the construction of St. Petersburg, the role of the main port of the country passed from Arkhangelsk to the future capital.
River channels were built.
In particular, the Vyshnevolotsky (Vyshnevolotsky water System) and the Bypass canals were built.
At the same time, two attempts to build the Volga Don Canal ended in failure (although 24 locks were built), while tens of thousands of people worked on its construction, working conditions were difficult, and mortality was very high[12].
Some historians characterize Peter's policy in trade as a policy of protectionism, consisting in supporting domestic production and imposing increased duties on imported products (this corresponded to the idea of mercantilism).
So, in 1724, a protective customs tariff was introduced — high duties on foreign goods that could be manufactured or already produced by domestic enterprises.
The number of factories and factories at the end of Peter's reign extended to 233, including about 90 were large manufactories[13].
The reform of the autocracy[edit / edit wiki text]
Before Peter, the order of succession to the throne in Russia was not regulated by law in any way, and was entirely determined by tradition.
In 1722, Peter issued a decree on the order of succession to the throne, according to which the reigning monarch appoints a successor during his lifetime, and the emperor can make anyone his heir (it was assumed that the tsar would appoint "the most worthy"as his successor).
This law was in force until the reign of Paul I. Peter himself did not use the law on succession to the throne, since he died without specifying a successor[14][15].
Estate policy[edit / edit wiki text]
The main goal pursued by Peter I in social policy is the legal registration of the estate rights and obligations of each category of the Russian population.
As a result, a new structure of society was formed, in which the class character was more clearly formed.
The rights and duties of the nobility were expanded and defined, and, at the same time, the serf oppression of the peasants was strengthened.
"Eco scarecrows!", ill.
S. S. Solomko
The nobility[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: The Nobility in the reign of Peter I
Key milestones:
The Decree on Education of 1706: boyar children must necessarily receive either primary school or home education.
The decree on the patrimony of 1704: the noble and boyar patrimony are not divided and are equated to each other.
The decree on single inheritance of 1714: a landowner with sons could bequeath all his real estate to only one of them at his choice.
The rest were obliged to serve.
The decree marked the final merger of the noble estate and the boyar patrimony, thereby finally erasing the differences between them.
The division of military, civil and court service into 14 ranks.
Upon reaching the eighth grade, any official or military could receive the status of a personal nobleman.
Thus, a person's career depended primarily not on his origin, but on achievements in public service.
The place of the former boyars was taken by the "generalitat", consisting of the ranks of the first four classes of the "Table of Ranks".
Personal service mixed representatives of the former family nobility with people raised by the service.
Peter's legislative measures, without significantly expanding the class rights of the nobility, significantly changed his duties.
Military affairs, which in Moscow times was the duty of a narrow class of serving people, is now becoming the duty of all segments of the population.
A nobleman of Peter the Great's time still has the exclusive right of land ownership, but as a result of the decrees on single inheritance and on revision, he is responsible to the state for the taxable serviceability of his peasants.
The nobility is obliged to study to prepare for the service.
Peter destroyed the former isolation of the service class, opening access to the environment of the gentry to people of other classes through seniority through the Table of ranks.
On the other hand, by the law on monogamy, he opened the way out of the nobility into merchants and clergy to those who wanted it.
The nobility of Russia is becoming a military bureaucratic estate, whose rights are created and inherently determined by public service, and not by birth.
The peasantry[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Peasants in the reign of Peter I
Peter's reforms changed the situation of the peasants.
From different categories of peasants who were not in serfdom from landowners or the church (black collar peasants of the north, non Russian nationalities, etc.), a new unified category of state peasants was formed — personally free, but who paid dues to the state.
The view that the measure "destroyed the remnants of the free peasantry," is wrong, because the groups that formed the state peasants, in the pre Petrine period is not seen as free — they were attached to the ground (Sobornoe ulozhenie 1649) and could be granted by the king to individuals and the Church as a fortress.
GOS.
the peasants in the eighteenth century had rights of free people personally (could own property, testify in court as one of the sides, to choose representatives in the estates, and so on), but was limited in movement and could be (until the early nineteenth century, when this category is finally confirmed as a free people), translated by the monarch in the category of serfs.
The legislative acts concerning the serf peasantry proper were contradictory in nature.
Thus, the interference of landowners in the conclusion of serf marriages was limited (the decree of 1724), it was forbidden to expose serfs instead of themselves as defendants in court and keep them on the right for the debts of the owner[16].
The norm on the transfer of the estates of landowners who ruined their peasants to guardianship was also confirmed[16], and the serfs were given the opportunity to enlist as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom [17] (by decree of the imp.
On July 2, 1742, the serfs lost this opportunity).
By the decree of 1699 and the verdict of the Town Hall of 1700, peasants engaged in trade or craft were granted the right to move to the settlements, being freed from serfdom (if the peasant was in such)[18].
At the same time, there were measures against runaway peasants were significantly tightened, large masses of palace peasants were distributed to private individuals, landowners were allowed to give serfs as recruits.
By a decree of April 7, 1690, it was allowed to cede, for unpaid debts of "local" serfs, which was actually a form of serf trade[18].
The imposition of a poll tax on serfs (that is, personal servants without land) led to the merger of serfs with serfs.
The church peasants were subordinated to the monastic order and removed from the power of the monasteries.
Under Peter, a new category of dependent farmers was created peasants assigned to manufactories.
These peasants in the XVIII century were called posession.
By a decree of 1721, nobles and merchant manufacturers were allowed to buy peasants to manufactories to work for them.
The peasants bought to the factory were not considered the property of its owners, but were attached to production, so that the owner of the factory could neither sell nor mortgage the peasants separately from the manufactory.
The posession peasants received a fixed salary and performed a fixed amount of work[19].
Urban population[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: The structure of cities and citizens under Peter I
The urban population in the era of Peter I was very small: about 3 % of the country's population[20].
The only major city was Moscow, which was the capital before the reign of Peter.
Although Russia was much inferior to Western Europe in terms of urban and industrial development, their gradual growth took place during the XVII century.
The social policy of Peter the Great, which concerned the urban population, pursued ensuring the payment of the poll tax.
For this purpose, the population was divided into two categories: regular (industrialists, merchants, artisans of workshops) and irregular citizens (all others).
The difference between the urban regular inhabitant of the end of Peter's reign from the irregular one was that a regular citizen participated in the city administration by electing members of the magistrate, was registered in the guild and workshop, or carried a monetary duty in the share that fell on him according to the social layout.
Forced shaving of beards.
The splint of the XVIII century.
In 1722, craft workshops appeared on the Western European model.
The main purpose of their creation was to unite disparate artisans to produce products needed by the army.
However, the shop structure did not take root in Russia.
During the reign of Peter, the system of city management changed.
The voivodes appointed by the tsar were replaced by elected City Magistrates subordinate to the Chief Magistrate.
Magistrates provided tax collection and performed judicial functions.
These measures meant the development of urban self government[21].
Cultural transformations[edit / edit wiki text]
Peter I changed the beginning of the chronology from the so called Byzantine era ("from the creation of Adam") to "from the Birth of Christ".
The year 7208 in the Byzantine era became the year 1700 of the Birth of Christ, and the New Year was celebrated on January 1.
In addition, a uniform application of the Julian calendar was introduced under Peter.
After returning from the Great Embassy, Peter I fought against the external manifestations of an" outdated " lifestyle (the most famous is the ban on beards), but no less paid attention to the introduction of the nobility to education and secular Europeanized culture.
Russian Russian educational institutions began to appear, the first Russian newspaper was founded, which was called Vedomosti, [22] and translations of many books into Russian appeared.
Success in the service of Peter made the nobles dependent on education.
Under Peter in 1703, the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared.
Before that, the numbers were denoted by letters with titles (wavy lines).
In 1708, Peter approved a new alphabet with a simplified lettering (the Church Slavonic font remained for printing church literature), two letters "xi" and " psi " were excluded.
Peter created new printing houses, in which 1312 titles of books were printed in 1700-1725 (twice as many as in the entire previous history of Russian printing).
Due to the rise of printing, paper consumption increased from 4-8 thousand sheets at the end of the XVII century, to 50 thousand sheets in 1719[23].
There have been changes in the Russian language, which includes 4.5 thousand new words borrowed from European languages[24].
In 1724, Peter approved the charter of the organized Academy of Sciences (opened in 1725 after his death).
The Assembly under Peter I.
Of particular importance was the construction of stone Petersburg, in which foreign architects took part and which was carried out according to the plan developed by the tsar.
They created a new urban environment with previously unknown forms of life and pastime (theater, masquerades).
The interior decoration of houses, the way of life, the composition of food, etc. have changed.
By a special decree of the tsar in 1718, assemblies were introduced, representing a new form of communication between people for Russia.
At the assemblies, the nobles danced and freely communicated, unlike previous feasts and feasts.
The reforms carried out by Peter I affected not only politics, economics, but also art.
Peter invited foreign artists to Russia and at the same time sent talented young people to study "arts" abroad, mainly to Holland and Italy.
In the second quarter of the XVIII century.
the "Petrovsky pensioners" began to return to Russia, bringing with them new artistic experience and acquired skills.
On December 30, 1701 (January 10, 1702), Peter issued a decree that ordered to write in full names in petitions and other documents instead of pejorative half names (Ivashka, Senka, etc.), not to fall on your knees before the tsar, in winter in the cold, do not take off your hat in front of the house in which the tsar is located.
He explained the need for these innovations as follows: "Less baseness, more zeal for service and loyalty to me and the state this honor is peculiar to the king..."[25]
Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society.
He banned forced marriage and marriage by special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724).
It was prescribed that there should be at least a six week period between the betrothal and the wedding, "so that the bride and groom could recognize each other."
If during this time, the decree said, "the groom does not want to take the bride, or the bride does not want to marry the groom," no matter how much the parents insist, "there will be freedom in that."
Since 1702, the bride herself (and not only her relatives) was granted the formal right to terminate the engagement and upset the arranged marriage, and neither party had the right to "beat her forehead about the penalty".
Legislative regulations of 1696-1704 on public holidays, it was mandatory for all Russians, including "women", to participate in celebrations and celebrations[26].
Gradually, a different system of values, world perception, and aesthetic ideas developed among the nobility, which radically differed from the values and worldview of most representatives of the other estates.
Peter I in 1709.
Drawing of the middle of the XIX century.
Education reform[edit / edit wiki text]
Peter was clearly aware of the need for enlightenment and took a number of decisive measures to this end.
On January 14, 1701, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences was opened in Moscow.
In 1701-1721, artillery, engineering and medical schools were opened in Moscow, an engineering school and a naval academy in St. Petersburg, mining schools at the Olonets and Ural factories.
In 1705, the first gymnasium in Russia was opened.
The goals of mass education were to be served by digital schools created by a decree of 1714 in provincial cities, designed to "teach children of every rank to read, write, and geometry".
It was supposed to create two such schools in each province, where education was to be free of charge.
Garrison schools were opened for soldiers ' children, a network of theological schools was created for the training of priests in 1721.
According to the Hanoverian Weber, during the reign of Peter, several thousand Russians were sent to study abroad.
Peter's decrees introduced mandatory training of nobles and clergy, but a similar measure for the urban population met with fierce resistance and was canceled.
Peter's attempt to create an all genealogical primary school failed (the creation of a network of schools ceased after his death, most of the digital schools under his successors were converted into estate schools for the training of the clergy), but nevertheless, the foundations for the spread of education in Russia were laid during his reign[27].
See also[edit / edit wiki text]
► Reforms of Peter I
Notes[edit / edit wiki text]
The Reforms of Peter the Great — an article from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Pavlenko N. I. Peter the First.
M.: Molodaya gvardiya, 1975
Platonov S. F.
A complete course of lectures on Russian history The internal activity of Peter since 1700
↑ "The History of Russia from ancient times to the beginning of the XXI century" edited by Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences L. V. Milov
↑ 1 2 D. O. Serov.
Fiscal Service of Russia: zigzags of the historical path.
Bulletin of the Novosibirsk University.
Ser.
Right.
2005.
T. 1.Vol. 1.
↑ 1 2 Eroshkin N. P. History of State Institutions of Pre revolutionary Russia.
Moscow, 1968.
Sedov P. V.
The decline of the Moscow Kingdom, the royal court of the end of the XVII century.
- St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg Institute of History, publishing house "Dmitry Bulanin", 2006.
Solovyov S. M.
The history of Russia since ancient times.
Vol. 18, ch .
3.
↑ A.M. Panchenko.
The beginning of Peter's reform: the ideological background.
Solovyov, Sergey Mikhailovich The History of Russia since Ancient Times book.
8 Chapter 3
Ани Anisimov E. V.
The time of Peter's Reforms.
Leningrad, 1989, p. 122
Pavlenko N. I. Peter the Great.
M, 2010, p. 759
Pavlenko N. I. Peter the Great.
M, 2010, p. 760
Platonov S. F.
A complete course of lectures on Russian history.
Peter's family relations
A. B. Kamensky " From Peter I to Paul I: Reforms in Russia of the XVIII century (the experience of a holistic analysis)"
↑ 1 2 " Essays on the history of the USSR.
XVIII century", edited by B. B. Kafengauz Moscow, 1962.
↑ "Course of Russian History", V. Klyuchevsky LECTURE LXIII
1 1 2 " Mankov A. G.
The development of serfdom in Russia in the second half of the XVII century .
M.; L., 1962
Де De Madriaga I.
"Russia in the era of Catherine the Great"
Ключев Klyuchevsky V. Course of Russian history.
Lecture LXV
N. Pavlenko "Peter the Great", B. Mironov "Social History of Russia"
Rokhlenko D. B.
The first Russian printed newspaper/Science and life.
№ 3, 2007.
Джеймс James Craycraft "Peter's Revolution: buildings, images, words / / collection" Peter the Great " edited by E. V. Anisimov 2007, page 84
Джеймс James Craycraft "Peter's Revolution: buildings, images, words / / collection" Peter the Great " edited by E. V. Anisimov 2007, page 87
М. M. Bykov.
The tale about the decree
↑ The private life of a Russian woman: bride, wife, mistress.
(X beginning of the XIX century
↑ Paul Dukes, «The Making of Russian Absolutism, 1613—1801»; Lyubavsky M. K., "A course of lectures on Russian history of the XVII XVIII centuries"
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