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Physical Geography " Geographical discoveries "
James Cook: Round the world trips
In 1768, the British Admiralty began organizing a southern Pacific expedition; the reason for it was the observation of the passage of the planet Venus through the solar disk on June 3, 1769.
The Admiralty believed that the head of the proposed expedition should not be a scientist, but an experienced military sailor.
It was first about exploration, for which one vessel is enough.
Therefore, when influential people who knew James Cook proposed his candidacy, it was accepted.
Only his "low" origin stopped him: the son of a farmhand, a simple sailor, who had risen to the rank of lieutenant by the age of forty, would command gentlemen officers.
But practical considerations won out.
Cook did not put any conditions before the Admiralty.
He had all the qualities necessary for such an expedition: he sailed in cold, temperate and tropical waters, off the shores of explored and little explored lands, was not only a naval officer, but also a hydrographer and even a practical astronomer.
As can be seen from Cook's diaries and other records, his mind was logical and inquisitive, his observation was great, his reasoning was harmonious.
From a multitude of facts, he was able to select the essential ones, compare and contrast them and come to conclusions that do credit to his insight.
Cook agreed to go on such a long and dangerous voyage, not on a large military or merchant ship, but on an ordinary cargo ship, which the gentlemen from the Admiralty themselves hardly considered quite suitable for this purpose at that time.
On August 26, 1768, the Endeavour ("Attempt") left Plymouth, arrived in Rio de Janeiro on November 13, and sailed south on December 7.
On January 16, 1769, at the southeastern tip of Tierra del Fuego, Cook took refuge from a storm in Buen Suseso Bay.
There he and his companions landed on the shore, where they first met with the fire earths.
On January 21, when the storm subsided, the Endeavour left the bay, rounded Cape Horn on January 25, and anchored off Tahiti on April 13.
On June 3, with exceptionally favorable weather, Ch.
Green made astronomical observations of all phases of the transit of Venus through the disk of the Sun.
June 26 July 1, Cook, together with D. Banks, went around the entire island in a boat.
On July 9, Cook left Tahiti, taking with him a smart Polynesian Tupia (Tupaya) and his boy servant.
Tupia rendered valuable services during the voyage as a guide to Oceania, as an interpreter and often as an intermediary between the British and the Polynesians.
According to his instructions and thanks to the map drawn by him, on July 14 — August 9, four small islands were discovered to the northwest of Tahiti.
Cook named this group the Society Islands (in honor of the Royal Society of London); later a number of western atolls began to be counted among them, then Tahiti and the southern islands.
Using the map of Tupia, Cook went south and on August 14 discovered a small island of Rurutu, from the Tubuai chain.
Cook first searched for the mainland south of Tahiti and, finding no signs of land here, turned west on September 2.
Having passed in the thirtieth latitudes along the "empty" ocean for more than 2.5 thousand km, the Endeavour approached an unknown land on October 8, 1769 and anchored for three days in the bay of"Poverti".
In the distance, he noted "very high mountains".
Cook examined the neighboring shores and was convinced that there was a large land in front of him, but he did not know whether it was an island or part of the Southern continent.
November 15, 1769 Cook announced the annexation of this country to the British possessions.
On January 10, 1770, after Cook bypassed the northwestern protrusion of New Zealand — the Auckland Peninsula, he noticed that the character of the coast had changed: instead of a dull low lying and sandy strip, "the land surface is quite high, there is a lot of forest and greenery."
Three days later, Cook saw Mount Egmont (2518 m) on a small peninsula with a peak covered with snow in the height of summer, and on January 15 he entered "a very wide and deep bay".
While exploring its shores, on January 23, Cook, " having climbed a hill, saw before him a body of water that was the Eastern Sea.
The Strait or passage from it into the Western (Tasman) Sea was just to the east of the entrance to the bay where we anchored."
Cook named it Queen Charlotte Strait — now Cook Strait.
After completing the repair of the ship, on February 7-8, he sailed through this Strait into the Eastern Sea, to the southern tip of the explored land — Cape Palliser.
After him, the coast turned to the north, and Cook again arrived at Cape Turnagain.
So, at least, part of Tasmanian New Zealand turned out to be not a protrusion of the southern continent, but a large island bypassed by the Endeavour.
However, the land to the south could be part of the mainland, and Cook went along its eastern shore, but it also turned out to be an island even larger than the Northern one.
April 1, 1770 Cook left New Zealand in order to set a course to the west.
But a strong wind threw the Endeavour far to the north.
On April 19, 1770, the British saw the land 550 km north of the Tasman.
"She has a rather friendly look," Cook writes the next day.
- Of moderate height, hills and ridges of mountains alternate with plains and valleys, on which small lawns are visible.
However, most of the area is covered with forest."
The Australian cape, discovered first, was named after its discoverer — Lieutenant Hicks (at the southeastern tip of the continent).
From this point, Cook moved to the north, keeping near the coast and taking pictures.
April 28 — May 6, the British prepared firewood and collected water in a "convenient and reliable bay", which Cook called Botany (Botanical).
On May 6, when he set out on his further journey, he saw another bay a few kilometers north of Botany, which he named Port Jackson.
(The city of Sydney, founded there by the British in 1788, has now "reached out" to Botany Bay.)
On May 17, the sailors passed by Moreton Island and discovered Moreton Bay behind it.
On May 23, the Endeavour rounded Fraser Island and the navigators opened a wide wash (Hervey).
On May 26, beyond the Southern Tropic, the British entered the strip bordered by the Great Barrier Reef.
A significant part of this dangerous strip managed to pass safely, but on June 11, the Endeavour ran into a reef.
We had to throw overboard six guns and part of the payload - only about 50 tons.
They found a harbor to the north and stayed there for eight weeks, repairing a ship that had received a hole.
There was quite enough food, as there were rich fishing grounds and a lot of turtles.
On August 6, the Endeavour put to sea.
The ship was moving only during the day, and yet in this most dangerous water area, called by Cook "Labyrinth", on August 16, it almost ran into a reef.
Cook steered the ship in a shallow coastal strip dotted with reefs, and on August 21 he saw Cape Iork and a group of small islands.
Behind them, on August 22, a wide (Torres) Strait opened, leading to the west.
Now there was no doubt that the coast passed was the eastern coast of New Holland, and Cape Iork was its northern tip.
Thus.
Cook traced almost the entire length (2300 km) of the Great Barrier Reef ridge.
On October 2, the Endeavour approached Java and stayed there until January 15, 1771.
During this time, 31 people died of tropical fever in the Indian Ocean, including Tupia, while during the entire voyage in the Pacific Ocean, Cook lost only one person: none of the crew on board had scurvy due to the diet introduced by the captain.
On July 13, 1771, he returned to England, having completed a circumnavigation of the world, which lasted almost three years.
On the final sailing map, Cook showed Tasmania and "New Holland" (Australia) as a whole.
However, in the ship's log, he suggested that they were separated by a strait.
Cook's second expedition was sent to search for the southern continent.
The southern continent could still exist, "witnesses" of which were the lands or mirages seen by some navigators at subantarctic latitudes for 50° s.
The Admiralty paid special attention to the" Land of Circumcision " indicated in the Bouvet.
Such lands were considered either protrusions (peninsulas) of the southern continent, or islands close to it.
On July 13, 1772, two ships "Resolutek " and" Advenger " left Plymouth and on October 30 arrived at the Cape of Good Hope, in Kapstad (now Cape Town).
There Cook was told that on the meridian of the island of Mauritius, eight months before, the Frenchman Yves Kerguelen Tremarek had discovered some land.
On November 23, the ships went straight to the south — to find the "Land of Circumcision".
After a few days, a strong westerly wind began to carry them to the east.
On December 7, a fresh wind blew, which turned into a storm.
The temperature dropped sharply to -3°C.
At noon on 17 January 1773, for the first time in the history of mankind court of cook crossed the Antarctic circle, reaching approximately 150 km from the coast of Antarctica, bordering the Cosmonauts sea (near 40° e).
18 Dec 1773 in snowy weather; in the fog again cook crossed the Antarctic circle and 23 December stopped in front of "irresistible ice barrier".
The weather was calm, the sea was calm, it was snowing wet.
"Everyone was suffering from the cold.
A thick fog fell like an impenetrable veil on the icy, ice covered sea…
There was no way to break through further to the south."
And Cook temporarily retreated and went south again.
On January 26, 1774, he crossed the Arctic circle for the third time, and on January 30, with clear weather and a fresh north wind, he reached 7°10 ' s.
As we now know, he was about 200 km from the nearest protrusion of Antarctica — the Thurston Peninsula, separating the Bellingshausen and Amundsen Seas.
At 4 o'clock in the morning, the sailors noticed a dazzling white stripe in the south — a harbinger of close ice fields.
Soon, from the mainmast, they saw a solid ice barrier stretching from east to west over an endless expanse.
The entire southern half of the horizon shone and sparkled with cold lights.
Cook counted 97 peaks and peaks along the edge of the ice field.
Some of them seemed very high, and the crests of these icy mountains were barely discernible in the shroud of low clouds and milky white fog.
Cook and most of his companions came to the conclusion that the grandiose ice field they discovered continues south to the pole or reaches some land somewhere in high latitudes.
On November 10, 1774, the Resolution weighed anchor and went to the southeast, and beyond the 55th parallel straight to the east.
From November 22 to December 17, Cook saw no signs of land anywhere until he approached Tierra del Fuego.
He was the first to sail across the Pacific Ocean in these latitudes, but noted that he "had never had to make such a significant transition, during which so little interesting would happen...".
Cook did not enter the Strait of Magellan, but explored the western and southern coasts of the Tierra del Fuego archipelago.
From January 3 to January 6, he was looking for a large land that was allegedly seen to the southeast of Estados and was conditionally mapped.
Not finding it, Cook turned north to look for another land, discovered on June 29, 1756 by the captain of the Spanish merchant ship Leon, on which A. Dalrymple sailed.
Its longitude was shown differently according to English sources, and therefore Cook doubted its existence.
However, on January 16, 1775, he found land, landed the next day, declared the new land a British possession and christened it South Georgia.
January 19, following the southeast of the vdo on the shores of South Georgia, Cook saw high mountains there; the ice covered peaks reached the clouds.
The next day, having rounded South Georgia, he saw in the northwest the cape from which he had started his inspection.
So, an island was discovered, and moreover not very large (4770 km2).
In the southeast, the land was visible, covered with a thick fog.
On January 23, Cook crossed to it, but found only a group of rocky islets, which he called Clark Rocks.
Continuing to go to the southeast, Cook reached 60°04 'S, 29°23' S on January 28, and, meeting many ice mountains with a flat surface here, turned to the northwest.
On February 1, he discovered a high bank extending east southeast.
Giant peaks covered with snow were lost in the clouds.
Cook, cruising there until February 6, decided that "the shores we discovered... were either a group of islands or the tip of the mainland", and named them Sandwich Land — in honor of D. M. Sandwich, the then first lord of the Admiralty.
So, after an incomplete survey of Sandwich's Land, Cook still admitted that it could turn out to be a protrusion of the southern continent.
Then he crossed the meridian indicated by Bouvet at 50 latitudes, went further east by another 13°, without encountering signs of land, and came to the conclusion (incorrectly) that Bouvet "took an ice island for the shores of the earth".
On February 23, he turned north.
And on July 29, 1775, the Resolution entered the English harbor after a voyage that lasted 3 years and 18 days.
Cook recognized the presence of Antarctic land, but pushed it too far to the pole and saw no practical interest in its discovery.
However, he himself did not believe that any mortal could do more in Antarctica than he had done.
"The risk associated with sailing in these unexplored and ice covered seas in search of the mainland, " he wrote, " is so great that I can safely say that no person will ever dare to penetrate further south than I managed.
The lands that may be located in the south will never be explored... "
But such people were found, and the study of the Antarctic continent began on sailing ships less than half a century after Cook wrote these proud, but not prophetic words.
Shortly after his return, Cook was promoted to the rank of captain of the 1st rank and accepted as a member of the Royal Society.
He was appointed governor of the Greenwich Naval Hospital — a quiet but unattractive place for Cook.
In essence, this meant an honorable, well paid, but still retirement.
By this time, the parliament decided that a bonus of 20 thousand pounds sterling would be given to any English ship that finds a passage between the oceans above 52 " s.
sh.
The British now attached state significance to this discovery because of the advance of the Russians from the west and the Spaniards from the south to Northwestern America.
The British Admiralty decided to send two ships to search for the northern passage.
And on February 10, 1776 Cook writes a letter with a request to appoint him as the head of a new expedition.
July 14, 1776 Cook sailed from the English Channel into the ocean and arrived at the Cape of Good Hope on October 18.
There he waited for Clark, the commander of the second ship.
They stayed off the cape until December 5, repairing both ships and replenishing food supplies.
For 52 days, the British marched across the Indian Ocean.
On the way, they saw the islands of Marion, Crozet and Kerguelen, discovered in 1771, but they did not find anything new themselves.
January 26, 1777 they approached the south eastern shore of the Vandiman Land, where the Frenchmen Nicolas Marion Dufresne and Julien Crozet visited after the Tasman in 1772, and stayed there until January 30.
Continuing the voyage, the ships reached the point in New Zealand on February 12, where 10 sailors from Furneaux's crew were killed.
Cook found out how they died, and decided not to use weapons against the New Zealanders, hoping to return and not wanting to turn them against him.
On February 25, the expedition headed to the northeast, found at the end of March two inhabited islands Mangaia and Atiu, where the inhabitants understood the Tahitian language, and one uninhabited (Takutea), approached the Hervey atolls and for two weeks explored the water space to the west and northwest to Palmerston Atoll, completing the discovery of the southern islands.
Slowly the ships went from island to island.
Cook showed an unusual inactivity here, which lasted four months.
Apparently, he was just tired, lost his taste for new discoveries and quite deliberately allowed himself and others to relax before the upcoming difficult voyage in the North Pacific Ocean.
On December 8, the ships headed north.
Cook believed that from the point of view of the Admiralty, he only begins "sailing for discoveries"from this moment.
On December 24, several atolls were seen beyond the equator.
And since Christmas was coming the next day, Cook gave this group the name Christmas ("Christmas"); it was strengthened behind the main island of the long Line chain (Central Polynesian Sporades).
On January 2, 1778, the British moved north from there and did not see the land for 16 days.
On January 18, at dawn, a high land appeared for 2 g s.
s., and the next day Cook discovered that it consisted of several islands, which he called Sandwich Islands.
It was the central group of the Hawaiian chain, including Oahu (1,548 km2), Kauai (1,416 km2), and the small island of Niihau.
On January 19, several boats approached the ships.
The inhabitants of the island spoke a language similar to Tahitian.
They were all dark skinned, strongly built people, they kept themselves peacefully, so the murder of one Hawaiian by an English officer sent for water caused Cook extreme displeasure.
Having boarded the ship, the islanders were more surprised at everything they saw there than the inhabitants of any other islands visited by Cook.
"This indicated that they had never been on board a ship before."
However, the Hawaiians were familiar with iron, which was in great demand.
Cook paid special attention to this, since on all the other islands of Polynesia, the inhabitants still did not know anything about iron.
Meanwhile, the Hawaiians realized that iron tools were much more suitable for drilling or cutting than any other tool produced in their country, and they asked the British for iron.
Among the Hawaiians, the sailors saw several iron objects — ship nails and, most likely, fragments of wide fishing knives.
The British stayed in the Hawaiian Islands for 15 days.
During this time, Cook examined the southern shores of the islands of Kauai and Niihau and learned about the existence of "somewhere nearby" another land — sparsely populated and low, probably the island of Molokai.
It was necessary, however, to hurry in order to penetrate into the northern waters in the summer.
And on February 2, Cook headed to the northeast.
On March 7, the "New Albion" — the Pacific coast of North America opened before him.
This land was "not very high... hilly and covered with forest."
From here, the British went north, but the fog prevented them from properly examining the coast, which often disappeared from sight, and putting it on the map.
On March 29, having missed, like many navigators after him, the mouth of the Columbia River, Cook entered the small bay of Nootka, discovered in 1774 by the Spaniard X. Perez, which Cook didnot know.
On April 26, the ships left Nootka and headed north with a fresh wind, "accompanied by squalls and rain," and sometimes hail and sleet.
On May 1, the sailors approached the point where 37 years ago A. Chirikov first approached the coast of Northwestern America.
Strong wind and fog did not allow Cook to go near the coast, which is why he, like his predecessors, made the mistake of mistaking the Alexander Islands for the mainland.
After three days of repairs, the ships left their haven, and upon leaving it, Cook discovered the long and narrow Montagu Island, named by him in honor of D. Sandwich.
The strong wind that had risen forced the sailors to stay away from the shore, but they still approached the land twice during periods of calm.
On May 25, Cook discovered the small Barren Islands and, bypassing them from the west, the next day penetrated into the bay or strait, as he and a number of his officers believed for some time.
In the northwest, the British saw a "mountain range of great height" (the southern part of the Alaska Range) and took it for a group of islands.
On June 2, the ships headed south, and the next day, when the fog cleared and "the sky cleared of clouds", Cook saw a volcano (Iliamna 3053 m).
After leaving " his " bay, he moved to the southwest by the route of Bering and Chirikov and on June 28 entered the bay on the northern shore of Unalaska Island.
Here the sailors replenished their fresh water supplies and stood until July 2.
Looking for the desired passage to the Atlantic Ocean, Cook headed northeast along the low lying coast of the long and narrow Alaska peninsula.
On July 16, the British approached the rocky Cape Newenham (at 162° S).
From Cape Newenham, the ships turned to the west and, moving in the fog for almost two weeks, approached the island of St. Matthew, discovered in the spring of 1749 by the Russian expedition of I. Bakhov N. Shalaurov.
From there, Cook proceeded to the northeast and on August 3 discovered a small island, named by him in memory of the surgeon W. Anderson, who died that day.
A day later, in a thick fog, the ships approached the coast of America.
From the coastal island of Sledge Cook moved near the coast to the northwest and on August 9, when it cleared up, he saw several islands (from the Diomede group, already known to the Russians) and a cape discovered before him by M. Gvozdev.
In fairness, it should be emphasized that it was Cook who first correctly imagined the true position of this point, which he called Cape Prince of Wales: "... it is the western tip of the entire hitherto known (part) America".
The next day, Cook crossed the Bering Strait into the Shire in the opposite direction and entered the narrow bay, which received the name of St. Lawrence.
Cook gave a clear ethnographic description of the local inhabitants and came to the correct conclusion that this is the Chukchi country, which was surveyed by Bering in 1728.
Then the ships crossed the Strait on a northeastern course (and on August 11 and 12, Cook simultaneously saw the Asian and American continents) and went out into the Chukchi Sea, keeping closer to the American coast.
The summer was coming to an end, and Cook decided not to try to find a passage.
On August 29, he approached the northern coast of Chukotka at Cape Severny, having completed a latitudinal crossing of the Chukchi Sea, and from there turned to the southeast and mapped about 1200 km of the coast.
After passing through the Bering Strait again, this time near the coast of Chukotka, Cook filmed another 1200 km of its coastal strip.
Then he descended to the south and turned sharply to the east.
On September 7, the ships reached America east of Sledge Island.
Until September 19, in clear weather, Cook skirted the vast Norton Bay with Norton Bay and a number of small islands, but could not approach its southern shore due to shoals.
The water there was muddy, the soil was silty, from which Cook correctly concluded that a "significant river" (Yukon) flows into the bay at this site.
The total length of the American coastline discovered by him (partly for the second time — after the Russians) was almost 4.5 thousand km.
From the bay, the ships passed to the west, touched the island of St. Lawrence and on October 2 arrived at the island of Unalaska, where they stayed until October 26.
Here Cook met with the Russian sailor G. G. Izmailov, who made no secret of what he knew about the North Pacific Ocean.
Cook received a lot of useful information from him: Izmailov corrected a number of errors in the maps compiled by Cook, made some additions to the maps delivered by the British from their homeland, and allowed two Russian drawings of the Okhotsk and Bering Seas to be copied.
At Unalashka, Cook learned that there are few edible supplies in Petropavlovsk and they are very expensive.
But the main reason for choosing a wintering place in Hawaii was something else: "...
I absolutely did not want to spend six or seven months in inactivity... (inevitable) in these northern seas."
After spending exactly a month on the meridian passage to Hawaii, on November 26, the British discovered the island of Maui and the island of Molokai to the west of it, and on November 30, 1778, they first landed on the mainland to the southeast of Maui.
The islanders accepted Cook as a deity.
However, serving the new " god " turned out to be even harder for the believers than for the old gods: he demanded too much food for his people, violated strict prohibitions (taboos), and according to the usual rule, such violators were punishable by death.
On the night of February 14, 1779 Cook learned that the residents had taken the boat away.
He ordered to seize all the Hawaiian boats standing in the harbor, and in the morning landed on the shore with a detachment of 10 people, arrested the old chief and his sons and led them to the boat…
Then the Hawaiians, who followed the arrested chief in a crowd, sent away the women and children and armed themselves with darts and stones.
Cook was the first to shoot at one warrior.
The islanders rushed at the British and killed the captain and several of his companions.
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