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The history of Arctic exploration.
Reference
The Arctic is the northern polar region of the Earth, including the Arctic Ocean and its seas: Greenland, Barents, Kara, Laptev, East Siberian, Chukchi and Beaufort, as well as the Baffin Sea, Fox Basin Bay, numerous straits and bays of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, the northern parts of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans;
The Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Greenland, Svalbard, Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, Severnaya Zemlya, the New Siberian Islands and Wrangel, as well as the northern coasts of the continents of Eurasia and North America.
The word "Arctic" is of Greek origin and means "the country of the big bear" - according to the constellation Ursa Major.
The Arctic occupies about a sixth of the Earth's surface.
Two thirds of the Arctic territory falls on the Arctic Ocean, the smallest ocean in the world.
Most of the ocean surface is covered with ice throughout the year (an average thickness of 3 m) and is not navigable.
About 4 million people live on this gigantic territory.
The North Pole has long attracted the attention of travelers and researchers who, overcoming incredible difficulties, penetrated further and further to the north, discovered cold Arctic islands and archipelagos and mapped them.
They were representatives of different peoples of the world: the Americans John Franklin and Robert Peary, the Dutchman William Barents, the Norwegians Fridtjof Nansen and Roald Amundsen, the Italian Umberto Nobile and many others whose names have forever remained in the names of islands, mountains, glaciers, seas.
Among them are our compatriots: Fyodor Litke, Semyon Chelyuskin, the Laptev brothers, Georgy Sedov, Vladimir Rusanov.
Russian Pomors and explorers already in the middle of the XVI century, using the tributaries of the Siberian rivers, made voyages to the Arctic Ocean and along its shores.
In 1648, a group of sailors led by the" merchant man " Fedot Popov and the Cossack ataman Semyon Dezhnev circumnavigated the Chukchi Peninsula on kochs (an old Pomeranian deck single masted sailing rowing vessel) and entered the Pacific Ocean.
In 1686-1688, the trading expedition of Ivan Tolstoukhov on three kochs bypassed the Taimyr Peninsula by sea from west to east.
In 1712, explorers Mercury Vagin and Yakov Permyakov visited Bolshoy Lyakhovsky Island for the first time, marking the beginning of the discovery and exploration of the entire group of the Novosibirsk Islands.
In 1733-1742, the Great Northern Expedition worked in the waters of the Arctic Ocean and on its coast.
In fact, it united several expeditions, including the second Kamchatka expedition under the leadership of Vitus Bering, who performed a huge complex of studies of the northern territory of Siberia from the mouth of the Pechora and the island of Vaigach to Chukotka, the Commander Islands and Kamchatka.
For the first time, the shores of the Arctic Ocean from Arkhangelsk to the mouth of the Kolyma, the coast of Honshu Island, and the Kuril Islands were mapped.
There was no more grandiose geographical enterprise before this expedition.
Semyon Chelyuskin devoted his whole life to the study of the north eastern outskirts of the Russian land.
For 10 years (1733-1743), he served in the second Kamchatka expedition, in the detachments of famous researchers Vasily Pronchishchev, Khariton Laptev.
In the spring of 1741, Chelyuskin walked on land along the western coast of Taimyr, made a description of it.
In the winter of 1741-1742, he traveled and described the northern coast of Taimyr, where he identified the northern tip of Asia.
This discovery was immortalized 100 years later, in 1843, the northern tip of Asia was named Cape Chelyuskin.
A significant contribution to the study of the eastern section of the Northern Sea Route was made by Russian navigators Ferdinand Wrangel and Fyodor Matyushkin (a lyceum friend of Alexander Pushkin).
In 1820-1824.
they surveyed and mapped the mainland coast from the mouth of the Kolyma to the Kolyuchinskaya Bay and made four unprecedented trips on drifting ice in this area.
Fyodor Litke went down in history as a major Arctic explorer.
In 1821-1824 Litke described the shores of Novaya Zemlya, made many geographical definitions of places along the White Sea coast, explored the depths of the fairway and dangerous shoals of this sea.
He described this expedition in the book " A Four time trip to the Arctic Ocean in 1821-1824."
In 1826, Litke went on a three year circumnavigation of the world on the sloop "Senyavin".
According to the results, this is one of the most successful expeditions of the first half of the XIX century: the most important points of the Kamchatka coast from the Avacha Bay to the north have been identified in the Bering Sea; the previously unknown Karaginsky Islands, Matvey Island and the coast of the Chukchi Land have been described; the Pribylov Islands have been identified; the Karolinsky archipelago, Bonin Sima Islands and many others have been explored and described.
A completely new stage in the exploration and transport development of the Arctic Ocean is associated with the name of the famous Russian navigator Admiral Stepan Makarov.
According to his idea, in 1899, the world's first powerful icebreaker "Ermak" was built in England, which was supposed to be used for regular communication with the Ob and Yenisei through the Kara Sea and for scientific research of the ocean to the highest latitudes.
The Russian "Hydrographic expedition of the Arctic Ocean" of 1910-1915 on the icebreaking steamers "Taimyr" and "Vaigach"was fruitful in terms of results.
Based in Vladivostok, in three years she completed a detailed hydrographic inventory from Cape Dezhnev to the mouth of the Lena and built navigation signs on the coast.
In 1913, the expedition was tasked with continuing the hydrographic inventory to the Taimyr Peninsula and, under favorable conditions, make a through voyage along the Northern Sea Route to present day Murmansk.
But Cape Chelyuskin was blocked by heavy unbroken ice.
In 1912, the project of a sledge expedition to the North Pole was made by the hydrographer and polar explorer Georgy Sedov.
On August 14 (27), 1912, the ship "Saint Foka" left Arkhangelsk and began to winter near Novaya Zemlya due to impassable ice.
The expedition approached Franz Josef Land only in August 1913, but due to the lack of coal, it became Quiet in the Bay for the second winter.
February 2 (15), 1914 Sedov and the sailors accompanying him, Grigory Linnik and Alexander Pustoshny, went to the North Pole on three dog sleds.
Before reaching fr. Rudolph, Sedov died and was buried at Cape Auk of this island.
Two bays and a peak on Novaya Zemlya, a glacier and a cape on Franz Josef Land, an island in the Barents Sea, and a cape in Antarctica are named after Sedov.
Arctic explorer, oceanologist Nikolai Zubov (1885-1960) in 1912 made a hydrographic survey of the Mityushikha Bay on the western coast of Novaya Zemlya.
In 1932, he led an expedition on the ship " N. Knipovich", for the first time in history, rounded the Land of Franz Josef from the north.
Later, Nikolai Zubov put forward and developed the problem of ice forecasts in the Arctic seas, laid the foundations of the doctrine of vertical water circulation and the origin of the cold intermediate layer in the sea, developed a method for calculating the compaction of waters when they are mixed, and formulated the law of ice drift by isobars.
Despite a number of expeditions in the early twentieth century, many of which made major geographical discoveries, the Arctic Ocean remained poorly explored.
In Soviet times, the research and practical development of the Northern Sea Route was given the importance of national importance.
On March 10, 1921, Lenin signed a decree on the establishment of a floating marine research Institute.
The Arctic Ocean with its seas and estuaries, islands and adjacent coasts of the RSFSR became the area of activity of this institute.
Since 1923, 19 polar radiometeorological stations have been built on the coast and islands of the Arctic Ocean in just ten years.
Soon Russia became a leader in the development and exploration of the North Pole.
In 1929, the famous polar explorer Vladimir Wiese put forward the idea of creating the first polar scientific drifting station.
In those years, the Arctic basin with an area of 5-6 million square kilometers still remained an unexplored "white spot".
It was only in 1937 that the idea of studying the Arctic Ocean from drifting ice became a reality.
A special place in history is occupied by the period of Soviet Arctic research in the 1930s and 1940s.
Then heroic expeditions were carried out on icebreaking vessels " G. Sedov", "Krasin", "Sibiryakov", "Litke".
They were led by famous polar explorers Otto Schmidt, Rudolf Samoilovich, Vladimir Wiese, Captain Vladimir Voronin.
During these years, for the first time in one navigation, the route of the Northern Sea Route was passed, heroic flights over the North Pole were made, which created fundamentally new opportunities for reaching and exploring the North Pole.
From 1991 to 2001, there was not a single Russian drifting station in the Arctic (the Soviet station "North Pole 31" was closed in July 1991), not a single scientist who would collect the necessary scientific data on the spot.
The economic situation of Russia forced to interrupt more than half a century of observations from the drifting ice of the Arctic.
Only in 2001, the experimental new drifting station "North Pole"was temporarily opened.
Now more than a dozen international expeditions are working in the Arctic with the participation of Russia.
On September 7, 2009, the Russian drifting station "North Pole 37" began operation.
SP 37 employs 16 specialists from the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute (AANI), Sergey Lesenkov has been appointed head of the station.
Scientific programs of Russian research are developed by leading scientific organizations and departments, which include the Hydrometeorological Research Center of the Russian Federation (Hydrometeorological Center of Russia), the State Oceanographic Institute( GOIN), the All Russian Research Institute of Hydrometeorological Information the World Data Center (VNIIGMI MCD), the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute (AANI) - the oldest and largest research institution in Russia conducting a comprehensive study of the Polar regions of the Earth; and others.
Today, the leading world powers have prepared for the redistribution of the Arctic spaces.
Russia became the first Arctic state to submit an application to the UN in 2001 to establish the outer limit of the continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean.
Russia's application involves clarifying the territory of the Arctic shelf with an area of more than a million square kilometers.
In the summer of 2007, the Russian polar expedition "Arctic 2007" was launched, the purpose of which was to study the shelf of the Arctic Ocean.
The researchers set out to prove that the Lomonosov and Mendeleev underwater ridges, which stretch to Greenland, can geologically be a continuation of the Siberian Continental platform, this will allow Russia to claim a huge territory of the Arctic Ocean of 1.2 million square kilometers.
The expedition reached the North Pole on August 1.
On August 2, the deep sea manned spacecraft Mir 1 and Mir 2 descended to the ocean floor near the North Pole and performed a complex of oceanographic, hydrometeorological and ice studies.
For the first time in history, a unique experiment was carried out to take samples of soil and flora from a depth of 4,261 meters.
In addition, the flag of the Russian Federation was hoisted at the North Pole on the bottom of the Arctic Ocean.
As Russian President Vladimir Putin said at the time, the results of the expedition to the Arctic should form the basis of Russia's position when deciding on the ownership of this part of the Arctic shelf.
Russia's updated application for the Arctic shelf will be ready by 2013.
After the Russian expedition, the topic of the ownership of the continental shelf began to be actively discussed by the leading Arctic powers.
On September 13, 2008, the Canadian American expedition was launched, in which the Arctic icebreaker of the US Coast Guard Service Healy and the heaviest icebreaker of the Canadian Coast Guard Service Louis S. St. Laurent took part.
The purpose of the mission was to collect information that will help determine the length of the US continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean.
On August 7, 2009, the second American Canadian Arctic expedition was launched.
On the US Coast Guard icebreaker Healy and the Canadian Coast Guard ship Louis S. St Laurent, scientists from the two countries collected data on the seabed and the continental shelf, where the richest oil and gas deposits are supposed to be located.
The expedition worked in areas from the north of Alaska to the Mendeleev Ridge, as well as to the east of the Canadian archipelago.
The scientists took photos and videos, and also collected materials about the state of the sea and the shelf.
More and more states are showing interest in participating in the active development of the Arctic zone.
This is due to the change in the global climate, which opens up new opportunities for establishing regular navigation in the Arctic Ocean, as well as greater access to the minerals of this vast region.
Source: RIA Novosti
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