A Brief History of Japan
(before the Meiji era)
Early Japan (the Dzemon, Yayoi and Yamato eras, about 13 thousand years ago - 710 AD)
During the Dzemon period (13000 BC - 300 BC), the population of the Japanese islands were engaged in gathering, hunting, and fishing.
"Dzemon" is the name of the clay products of that time.
In 660 BC, according to Japanese legend, there was the accession of Jimmu Tenno, the first Japanese emperor, a descendant of the gods, the founder of the Yamato state.
He led his people from Kyushu to the Kinki region and conquered the local tribes.
However, modern scientists believe that the state in Japan began to form no earlier than the 3rd century AD.
In 400 BC, horses were first used in the Japanese army.
During the Yayoi period (300 BC - 250 AD), rice crops were introduced to Japan from Korea and China (around 100 BC).
With the advent of agriculture, social classes began to stand out, and parts of the country began to unite.
The name of the period was also given to clay products.
During the Yayoi period, blacksmithing and other "high technologies" of that time came to the island of Kyushu from Korea along with emigrants.
Chinese travelers during the reign of the Han and Wei dynasties reported that at that time the ruler of the country (more precisely, one of the most influential tribes) was a priestess named Pimiko or Himiko.
Later, the center of government moved to the east and reached the fertile fields of the Kinai district (now Kansai).
Around 300 AD, the country was united under the rule of the Yamato tribe with the political center in the province of Yamato (now Nara Prefecture).
This period is also called the Kofun period, since during this era large mounds were built for the rulers (Yap. - "kofun").
The emperor ruled Japan and lived in the capital, which often moved from one city to another.
At the Yamato court, the Otomo family, who was in charge of the palace guards, was most influential, then overthrown by the house of Mononobe, who was in charge of military detachments and their weapons.
In 369, the Japanese imposed tribute on the Korean region of Miman (near Busan), and in 391 they sided with the Korean state of Baekje, which was threatened by neighboring Goguryeo.
Over time, the real political power was in the hands of the powerful Soga clan, and the emperor was considered only as the high priest of Shintoism.
This situation persists in Japan to this day - the emperor performs the most important rites, and political power is in the hands of ministers, shoguns, parliament, and so on.
Japan during the Yamato period stretched from the island of Kyushu to the Kinai fields, but did not yet cover the Kanto and Tohoku regions.
Japan also controlled a small part of South Korea.
Thanks to this circumstance and friendly relations with the Korean state of Baekje, the influence of China and Korea on Japan grew.
Even when Japan lost all military and political influence on the Korean Peninsula in 662, the influence of the mainland states remained quite strong.
Buddhism was introduced to Japan between 538 and 552 years.
The new religion was welcomed by the ruling class, who wanted changes in the country.
Prince Setoku Taishi played a huge role in spreading Buddhism and Chinese values.
He wrote the "Code of Seventeen Articles", in which he preached Buddhism and Chinese state ideals.
Recently, however, the authorship of the prince is often denied.
Buddhism had a huge number of followers among the members of the upper classes and became the state religion.
However, ordinary peasants could not assimilate the complex dogmas of this religion.
At first, there were small conflicts in which Shintoism opposed Buddhism, but later these two religions began to coexist harmoniously.
In 645, after the victory in the struggle for power of two houses of tribal nobility (Sumeragi and Nakatomi), led by Prince Naka no Oe and Nakatomi Kamatari (Fujiwara Kamatari), a representative of the winning coalition was elevated to the throne over the Soga clan - the 36th Emperor of Japan Kotoku (645-650), who took the title of tenno (son of Heaven).
Kotoku's rise to power was called the "Taika coup" in Japanese history (Taika is the motto of the reign of Emperor Kotoku, literally - "Great Changes").
The standard of the form of power and state that Prince Setoku Taishi aspired to was the Chinese state of the Tang Dynasty.
The Fujiwara clan actually ruled Japan until the military (samurai) clans came to power in the XI century.
In the same year, the Taika reforms were carried out: the system of the state apparatus and administration were borrowed from China, all the land was bought by the state and divided equally among the peasants, a new Chinese tax system was introduced.
The coup and the reforms of the Taik formalized the emergence of a centralized state, provided with a regular army, headed by a hereditary emperor.
In areas of strategic importance (border areas), garrisons appeared, in which people who had reached the age of majority (20 years) served.
Conscripts were reduced to detachments called "gundan", i.e. "local squads".
In wartime, several squads were united into an army ichigun under the command of the voivode - shogun, and the three armies, in turn, were reduced to one large one, controlled by taishegun ("great shogun"), to whom the emperor granted a sword - a sign of voivodeship powers.
After military campaigns, the troops were disbanded, their weapons were stored in barns.
There were no samurai warriors, who later formed into the warrior class, at that time.
Under the influence of China and Korea, Taoism and Confucianism came to Japan, as well as Chinese kanji hieroglyphics.
The Nara and Heiyan Eras (710-1185)
In 710, the first permanent capital of Japan was founded in the city of Nara.
The city was built on the model of the capital of China.
New large Buddhist monasteries were built in Nara, whose political influence soon reached such a level that, in order to preserve the power of the emperor, the capital was moved in 784 to the city of Nagaoka, and in 764 to Heian (Kyoto), where it remained for a thousand years.
VIII XI century - the time of the emergence of samurai.
As a result of the growth of large landholdings and their absorption of small ones, small owners were forced to put themselves under the protection and patronage of large feudal lords.
Vassals were obliged to the suzerains for military service.
These vigilantes gradually turned from "palace samurai" into a new type of samurai armed servants who received maintenance from their master for faithful service housing and food, and sometimes plots of land with peasant yards assigned to it.
Another equally important reason for the formation of the warrior class was the incessant struggle in the north east of the country with the Ainu (Ezo) tribes the descendants of the indigenous population of the Japanese islands.
Even during the reign of the emperors Konin (770-781) and Kammu (782-805), due to the frequent military operations on the borders, it was decided to create special detachments at the court, which were to be recruited from wealthy peasants, "dexterous in archery and horseback riding", to counteract the Ainu.
In 802, Izawa Castle was built in the Mutsu region with the defense department (tinjufu) located in it, established in 725.
The administration (garrison headquarters) was intended to guide the Japanese forces in order to maintain calm and pacify the aborigines.
The castle of Taga no jo, built a little later, housed "guard warriors", or "warriors of pacification and defense" (tinju no hei).
The border also attracted fugitive peasants who sought to seize the Ainu lands.
Over time, the government began to encourage the relocation of such "Azumabito" ("people of the east") to the north.
The settlers, who received weapons from the authorities, conducted a more effective struggle with the Ainu than the military expeditions undertaken by the Japanese during the major demonstrations of the Ainu population.
One of the characteristic features of the Nara and Heian eras was the deviation from Chinese influence towards national consciousness.
Even when China's influence was still strong, many of the ideas introduced were "Japanized": for example, several ministerial posts were introduced in the government to support the special, "native" needs of the country.
And the popularity of "native" Japanese cultural traditions grew in art.
The development of the Kana alphabet made life easier for Japanese writers.
In 712, the "Kojiki", the first Japanese chronicles, were compiled, and in 720, the "Nihongi" ("Annals of Japan") chronicles were published.
Also during the Heian period, several Buddhist sects borrowed from China appeared, which underwent "Japanization".
The emphasis in the Taik reforms was placed on a new land management system and a tax system, but the new high taxes forced impoverished peasants to sell their allotments and become tenants from larger landowners.
In addition, many aristocrats and Buddhist monasteries have obtained permission not to pay taxes.
As a result, the gross domestic product declined, and after a few centuries, power actually moved from the hands of the emperor to the hands of large independent landowners.
The Fujiwara clan controlled the political situation in the country for several centuries of the Heian period, marrying girls from their kind to emperors and occupying more and more posts in Kyoto and the province.
The influence of the clan reached its apogee in 1016, when Fujiwara Michinaga became regent ("kampaku").
As a result of Fujiwara's rule, people who were constantly unable to manage were constantly in the government.
The authorities could not maintain order in the country.
Therefore, many landowners hired samurai to protect their property, and the military class gained increasing influence, especially in Eastern Japan.
The power of the Fujiwara clan ended in 1068, when the new emperor Go Sanjo decided to rule the country on his own, and the Fujiwara could not subordinate him to their power.
In 1086, Go Sanjo abdicated and became a monk, but continued to rule the country from a monastery.
The new form of government was called the Insei Government (monastic emperors).
The ruling ex emperors had their own administrative apparatus, regardless of the official one, which continued to remain in the hands of Fujiwara.
They tried to rely on the Taira and Minamoto clans, on Buddhist monasteries, whose influence increased under the Insei system.
Ex emperors concentrated in their hands more and more estates on the rights of private feudal property, while nominal emperors, whose land was considered state, increasingly lost it.
In the 12th century, many provinces no longer had state land.
As a result, the power of the regents from the house of Fujiwara became increasingly nominal.
The Insei emperors exerted political influence from 1086 to 1156, when Taira Kiyomori became the ruler of Japan.
In the XII century, two influential military clans were particularly distinguished: the Minamoto (or Genji) and Taira (or Heike) clans.
The Taira occupied quite a few posts during the reign of the Fujiwara clan.
On the other hand, the Minamoto clan gained a lot of military experience, having conquered some lands for Japan in the northern part of the island of Honshu.
Also during the Early (first) The Nine - Year War (1050 - 1059), which began with the uprising of Yoritoki Abe, the feudal lord of the northern province of Mutsu, who was defeated by the son and grandson of Yorinobu Minamoto Yoriyoshi and Yoshiye; and during the Late (second) Three - Year War (1083-1087), when Yoshiye Minamoto, on the orders of Fujiwara, opposed the rebellious major feudal lord of the northern province of Deva Kyivara and after a three year struggle, won over him the Minamoto clan he proved to be a combat ready and strong opponent.
After the Heiji Rebellion (1159), a battle for power between the two clans, Taira Kiyomori became the leader of Japan and ruled the country from 1168 to 1178, ignoring the emperor.
His main opponents were not only the Minamoto clan, but also the growing military power of Buddhist monasteries, often waging war among themselves and disturbing public peace.
After Kiyomori's death, the Taira and Minamoto clans, fighting for power, unleashed the Genpei War (1180 - 1185).
Minamoto and his supporters sought to seize the rich developed Taira lands.
The Minamoto feudal lords, who ruled in the northeastern regions of the Kanto Plain, had a more capable and numerous samurai army, hardened in battles with the Ainu.
In addition, Minamoto had an undoubted advantage over his opponents - he could constantly supply the vigilantes who passed to him with small land plots recaptured from the aborigines.
All this eventually led to the defeat of the Taira in a number of battles, the most significant of which was the naval battle of Dannoura (Shimonoseki) in 1185.
After neutralizing all his potential opponents, including some family members, Minamoto Yoritomo was named shogun ("commander in chief") in 1192 and founded a new government (shogunate or "Bakufu") in his hometown of Kamakura.
Kamakura Era (1185-1333)
The new feudal government was organized more simply than the Chinese one, and therefore it worked more effectively in the conditions of Japan.
After the death of Yoritomo in 1199, due to the inability of his eldest son to manage, a council of the largest military leaders was created.
It was headed by Yorimoto's father - in law, Tokimasa Hojo.
After a long struggle between the grandchildren and the sons of Yorimoto, his youngest son Sanemoto Minamoto became shogun.
He was a minor and the same Tokimasa Hojo, who took the title of "shikken" (ruler), became regent under him.
The title and post of shikken, actually the head of state, which became hereditary, remained in the hands of the house of Hojo until 1333.By redistributing the lands seized during the coup, they secured the favor of all the influential people of Japan.
On June 6, 1221, the ex emperor Go Toba in tried to regain the real power lost by his predecessor Go Shirakawa.
He declared Yoshitoki Hojo outlawed, and Eastern Japan, the citadel of the Shogunate, rebellious.
The Bakufu sent an army under the command of Yasutoka, the son of Yoshitoka, against Kyoto.
He occupied Kyoto, deposed and exiled Go Toba to Oki, executed all those involved, confiscated about 3,000 large estates, which he divided into pieces and distributed as fiefs to his vassals.
Thus, small fiefdoms were established as the dominant form of land ownership, and the small scale military service nobility (Bushi, samurai) became the dominant force.
The Bakufu (the Shogun's headquarters) acquired the right to approve emperors and ex emperors, determine the order of succession to the throne, and appoint regents.
The influence of China continued during the Kamakura period.
New Buddhist sects appeared: the Zen sect (brought from China in 1191) found a large number of followers among the samurai, the leading class of that time.
Another Buddhist sect, the radical and intolerant Lotus Sutra Sect, was founded by Nitiren in 1253.
It was later renamed the Nichiren Sect.
It was distinguished by its hostile attitude towards other Buddhist sects and pronounced nationalism.
In 1232, the "Jiei Shikimoku", a set of laws, was introduced.
It established the special importance of loyalty to the master and was intended to combat the decline of morality and discipline.
The Hojo clan controlled the entire country, and any manifestation of rebellion was immediately suppressed.
The shoguns remained in Kamakura and had no special power, and their representatives were located in Kyoto and western Japan.
The governors and the police tightly held power in the province.
The regents of the Hojo clan were able to ensure some time of peace and economic prosperity until Japan began to be threatened by enemies from outside.
In 1259, the Mongols conquered China and became interested in Japan.
The Emperor of China Kublai, who came from the Genghis Khan family, whose troops had recently conquered the Middle Kingdom, sent an ambassador to Japan with threatening letters demanding submission.
The Mongol threats were ignored by the Kamakura government.
As a result, the Mongols made their first attempt to conquer the island of Kyushu in 1274.
The naval expedition of Kublai came to the shores of Kyushu.
His army occupied the islands of Tsushima and Iki, landed on Kyushu, occupied the city ofHakata.
However, the Mongols were forced to leave Kyushu for fear of being cut off from the mainland as a result of the loss of most of the ships wrecked by the storm.
This circumstance helped Japan a lot, since the Japanese could not resist the huge Mongolian army.
In 1275, Kublai sent another embassy demanding to recognize the suzerainty of China.
The members of the embassy were executed in Kamakura.
After thorough preparations, the Japanese were able to resist the second intervention of the Mongols in 1281.
But the typhoon destroyed almost all of Kublai's ships.
The Japanese expected a new invasion for a long time, until the death of Kublai in 1294, but it never came.
This typhoon went down in the history of Japan as " kamikaze "("divine wind").
During the invasions of Kublai, the samurai squads for the first time encountered a new tactic of warfare for them, which consisted in the interaction of all units of the army, general command, actions from the flanks (detours and encirclement), etc., as well as with hitherto unknown firearms, which destroyed and burned most of the Japanese coastal fortifications.
All this laid the foundation for a new military organization, which later helped the commander Hideyoshi in many victories.
The results of many years of military preparations were disastrous for the Kamakura government, not bringing profit and requiring a lot of money.
Many soldiers were waiting for the money promised to them, which the government was unable to pay.
In general, financial problems and a decline in confidence on the part of those in power were the most important reasons for the fall of the Kamakura government.
Until 1333, the influence of the Hojo regents had declined to such a low level that Emperor Go Daigo was able to restore the former power of the emperor and remove the Kamakura Shogunate.
Muromachi Era (1333-1573)
Emperor Go Daigo was able to restore his influence over the empire and overthrew the Kamakura Shogunate in 1333.
But the old imperial ministries revived during the Restoration of Cammu (1334) did not last long because of the outdated state apparatus, and incompetent ministers did not find support in the face of powerful landowners.
Ashikaga Takauji, who had previously fought alongside the emperor, rebelled against the Court and conquered Kyoto in 1336.
Go Daigo fled south to Yoshino and founded the Southern Court there.
At the same time, another emperor ascended the throne in Kyoto.
This was made possible as a result of a succession dispute between the two branches of the imperial family after the death of Emperor Guo Saga in 1272.
In 1338, Takauji appointed himself Shogun and established a new government in Kyoto.
The Muromachi district, where government buildings have been located since 1378, gave the new government and period this name.
Two imperial courts have existed in Japan for more than half a century: the Southern and Northern Courts.
They waged endless wars against each other.
Usually, the Northern Court was in a better position, but still the Southern Court managed to briefly capture Kyoto several times.
The Southern Court finally surrendered in 1392, and the country was again united under the rule of one emperor.
During the reign of a shogun named Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (1368 - 1408), the Muromachi shogunate could still control the central provinces, but lost its influence on the rest of the land.
Yoshimitsu has established good trade relations with China.
The gross domestic product grew due to new technologies in agriculture and a new inheritance scheme.
As a result, trade developed, new cities and social classes appeared.
During the XV and XVI centuries, the influence of the Ashikaga shoguns and the government in Kyoto on the situation in the country practically disappeared.
For the first time in politics during the Muromachi period, small clans of landowner warriors - "ji samurai" - appeared.
After the unification of some of them, they surpassed the provincial police in strength, and some of them extended their influence to entire provinces.
These new feudal lords were called "daimyo".
They divided Japan among themselves.
Gradually, the frequent internecine skirmishes turned into a real civil war.
This period from 1477 to 1577 is called "Sengoku Jidai" ("Warring Provinces").
These are blessed times for the samurai.
Everyone was at war with everyone.
Of the 250 well born daimyos (the most influential daimyos were Takeda, Uesugi and Hojo in the east and Ouchi, Mori and Hosokawa in the west), only about a dozen remained alive by the end of the war.
But they were replaced by hundreds of Sengoku daimyo initially not rich, but ambitious and stopping at nothing military feudal lords.
This time was the heyday of the art of samurai.
It was then that large mounted and foot masses of troops began to take part in the battles, firearms appeared.
The active construction of castles began.
During the incessant battles of that time, among all the daimyo who fought for power, two of the most powerful, rich and talented generals stood out.
These were Uesugi Kenshin (1530-1578) and Takeda Shingen (1521-1573).
Both were real samurai and achieved their high position in the hardest uncompromising struggle with their relatives and neighbors, repeatedly personally participating with a sword in their hands in bloody battles.
The history of the war between these two generals knows many examples of their noble behavior towards each other.
When Shingen, wounded by a rifle bullet, died, Uesugi Kenshin mourned him as "the best of enemies".
Five years later, he himself followed him, killed by a ninja mercenary.
In 1542, the first Portuguese merchants and Jesuit missionaries appeared in Kyushu and brought firearms and Christianity to Japan.
The Jesuit Francis Xavier came to Kyoto on a mission in 1549-1550.
Many daimyo converted to Christianity, as they were interested in developing trade relations with overseas countries, mainly for military reasons.
The mission to Kyushu successfully expanded its influence.
In the middle of the XVI century, the daimyo increasingly sought to gain power over the entire country.
One of the" newcomers " who took the first steps towards the unification of Japan was Oda Nobunaga.
He entered Kyoto in 1568 and overthrew the Muromachi Shogunate in 1573.
Azuchi Momoyama Era (1573-1603)
In 1559, Oda Nobunaga received the administration of the province of Owari (the area of the modern city of Nagoya).
Like many other daimyo, he was interested in the unification of Japan.
Thanks to his strategically well located possessions, he managed to capture the capital in 1568.
After he settled in Kyoto, Nobunaga continued to destroy his enemies.
He was opposed by some militant Buddhist sects, especially the Ikko sect, which, in fact, ruled several provinces.
In 1571, Nobunaga completely destroyed the Enryakuji Monastery.
His confrontation with the Ikko sect lasted until 1580.
Nobunaga was very lucky with two of his most dangerous opponents in the east: Takeda Shingen and Uesugi Kenshin died before they could really resist Nobunaga.
After the death of Takeda Shingen, Nobunaga defeated the Takeda clan at the Battle of Nagashino in 1575, actively using firearms.
In 1582, General Akechi killed Nobunaga and captured his Azuchi Castle.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the general who fought for Nobunaga, reacted quickly and, after defeating Akechi, inherited power.
Hideyoshi quickly destroyed his opponents.
He subdued the northern provinces and the island of Shikoku in 1583, as well as Kyushu in 1587.
After defeating the Hojo clan in the Battle of Odawara in 1590, Japan was finally united.
In an attempt to establish control over the entire country, Hideyoshi destroyed many castles built throughout the country during the era of civil wars.
In 1588, he confiscated all weapons from peasants and monks during the so called "Sword Hunt".
He forbade the samurai to have anything to do with agriculture and forced them to move to the cities.
A clear division between classes strengthened the government's control over the people.
In addition, in 1583, an audit of all the lands of the state began, and in 1590 a population census was conducted.
In the same year, the huge Hideyoshi - Osaka Castle was completed.
In 1587, Hideyoshi by his decree expelled all Christian missionaries from the country.
But the Franciscans were able to return to Japan in 1593, and the Jesuits restored their former activity in the west.
In 1597, Hideyoshi intensified the persecution of Christian missionaries, forbade them to change their faith, and executed 26 Franciscans as a warning.
The Christian Church was gaining strength and could easily seize control of the people; in addition, many Jesuits and Franciscans were very aggressively pushing the positions of Shintoism and Buddhism.
Hideyoshi's next goal after the unification of the country was to capture China.
In 1592, the Japanese army invaded Korea and captured Seoul in a few weeks; however, the following year they were pushed back by a stronger Chinese army.
Hideyoshi persisted and did not give up until the last defeat and the withdrawal of troops from Korea in 1598.
Despite the fact that this war was unsuccessful, Hideyoshi, who died in 1598, had something to be proud of.
He completed the unification of the country, which was started by Nobunaga.
He established a clear social division of all strata of society.
At the top of this society, immediately after the emperor and the aristocrats, there were samurai.
The warriors received many privileges.
The right to carry two swords by soldiers was formalized by law.
No one else had this right except them.
Every commoner or peasant who, in the opinion of the samurai, showed him insufficient respect, he could cut down on the spot with impunity.
The power of the military was supported by a powerful financial base created as a result of successful battles and the unification of the camp.
Despite the war, trade with China was revived through the mediation of Portuguese missionaries.
The tactics of using large masses of troops, including with the use of firearms, were further developed.
Guns and cannons, only recently imported to Japan, were now produced by Japanese master gunsmiths themselves.
The quality of the island firearms was not inferior to the European ones.
After Hideyoshi's death, Tokugawa Ieyasu, an associate of Hideyoshi and Nobunaga, took power into his own hands as the most influential person in Japan.
When Hideyoshi was dying, he asked Ieyasu to take care of his son, heir Hideyori, and the Toyotomi family forever.
Edo Period (1603-1868)
Tokugawa Ieyasu was the most influential person in Japan after Hideyoshi, who died in 1598.
But he broke his promise and did not respect Hideyoshi's heir, his son Hideyori, because he wanted to rule Japan himself.
For several years, skilfully navigating the turbulent political waters (his brilliant political foresight and patience were legendary), he managed to win a convincing victory over his competitors in the struggle for power.
At the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, Ieyasu defeated Hideyori's supporters and other opponents from the west.
Thus, he received unlimited power and wealth.
In 1603, under the authority of Emperor Ieyasu, he was proclaimed shogun and founded his government in Edo (now Tokyo).
The Tokugawa Shogunate ruled Japan for 250 years.
Ieyasu strictly controlled the entire country.
He skillfully distributed the land among the daimyo: the most loyal vassals (those who supported him even before the battle of Sekigahara) received strategically more important plots.
To fully control the people in the Edo period, there was a system of 4 classes: at the top of the social ladder were samurai, then there were peasants, artisans and merchants.
Members of these four classes were forbidden to change their social status.
Pariahs- "this", people with professions considered "dirty", formed the most discriminated fifth class.
Ieyasu continued to develop international trade relations.
He established trade relations with England and Germany.
At the same time, in 1614, he achieved the prohibition of Christianity in order to prevent dangerous influence from outside.
After the destruction of the Toyotomi clan in 1615 and the capture of Osaka, he and his heirs had practically no opponents, and the Edo period can be called a fairly peaceful period.
Warriors (samurai) were trained not only in martial arts, but also in literature, philosophy, art, etc., for example, the tea ceremony.
Zen Buddhism and neo Confucianism spread among them the principles of self discipline, morality and loyalty.
In 1633, Shogun Iemitsu banned long distance voyages and almost completely isolated Japan in 1639, limiting contact with the outside world to trade with China and Holland through the port of Nagasaki.
All foreign books were banned.
Thanks to the isolation, the quality of local agricultural products improved, the local market grew.
In the Edo era and, especially, the Genroku period (1688 - 1703), there was a flourishing of cultural life.
Among the population, especially urban ones, such art forms as kabuki theater and ukiyo e - pictures on everyday topics were gaining popularity.
The Tokugawa government remained stable for centuries; however, the positions were already a little different from what they were at the beginning.
The merchant class grew so fast that some samurai became financially dependent on them.
This was the reason for the smoothing of class differences between samurai and merchants, and the power of the samurai gradually declined.
In addition, high taxes and famine caused an increase in the number of peasant uprisings.
In 1720, the ban on foreign literature was lifted, and some new philosophical teachings came to Japan from China and Europe (Germany).
At the end of the XVIII century, pressure from the rest of the world began to increase, when Russia unsuccessfully tried to establish trade relations with Japan.
Russia was followed by European states and Americans in the XIX century.
Commander Parry in 1853 and 1854 asked the Japanese government to open several ports for maritime trade, but foreign trade relations remained insignificant until the Meiji Restoration in 1868.
These events gave rise to a wave of anti Western sentiments and criticism of the Tokugawa Shogunate, as well as the growth of the movement in support of the restoration of imperial power.
The anti Western and pro imperial movement ("Sonno Joi") was widespread among the samurai of the provinces of Choshu and Satsuma.
More reserved people understood the serious achievements of science and military art of the West much earlier and preferred to open Japan to the world.
Later, both conservatives from Choshu and Satsuma realized the advantages of the West, participating in several battles with Western warships.
In 1867-68, the Tokugawa government withdrew from the scene under political pressure, and the power of Emperor Meiji was restored
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