MAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT.
ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT ON NATURE
Man and the environment Anthropogenic impact on nature.
classification of anthropogenic impacts Basic laws of the "man - nature" system Prospects of the relationship between civilization and the biosphere
MAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Until the mid 70s of our century, ecology was considered as the science of the relationship between living organisms and the environment, i.e. it had a purely biological character.
In recent decades, the situation has changed due to the aggravation of environmental problems on the planet.
Modern ecology, or megaecology, now puts the relationship of a person with the environment at the forefront.
The concept of "environment" includes everything that surrounds us, which directly or indirectly affects our life and activities.
The composition of the environment in the broadest sense of the word includes our entire planet and outer space.
In a narrower view, the environment is usually taken to mean the biosphere.
A person is closely connected with the environment by origin, material and spiritual needs.
The scale and forms of these relations have steadily grown from the local use of individual natural resources to the almost complete involvement of the planet's resource potential in the life support of a modern industrialized society.
With the emergence of human civilization, a new factor has appeared that affects the state of the biosphere.
It has reached tremendous strength in the current century, especially in recent decades.
According to the scale of their impact on nature, 6 billion of our contemporaries are equal to about 60 billion people of the Stone Age, and the amount of energy released by man may soon become comparable to the energy received by the Earth from the Sun.
Man, developing production, remakes nature, adapts it to his needs, and the higher the level of development of production, the more perfect the technique and technology, the greater the degree of use of the forces of nature and environmental pollution.
Even in ancient Rome and Athens, the Romans noted the pollution of the waters of the Tiber, and the Athenians the pollution of the waters of the Athenian port of Piraeus, which received ships from the entire then Ecumene, i.e. the territory of the globe inhabited by man.
Roman settlers in the provinces of Africa complained about the impoverishment of land due to soil erosion.
For many centuries, artificial, i.e. anthropogenic, sources of environmental pollution have not had a noticeable impact on environmental processes.
The most developed in those days were the production of metals, glass, soap, pottery, paints, bread, wine, etc.
Compounds such as oxides of carbon, sulfur and nitrogen, metal vapors, especially mercury, were released into the atmosphere, waste from dyeing and food production went into reservoirs.
In the Middle Ages, the process of accelerated development of chemistry began due to the need to obtain relatively large quantities of various acids, saltpeter, gunpowder, etc.
The transition from feudal fragmentation to the formation of unified states with centralized power contributed to the further progress of the metalworking industry and chemical technology.
However, in terms of volume, industrial emissions were still inferior to emissions from furnace heating and sewage.
The first law on environmental protection is considered to be the edict of the English King Edward IV (1273), prohibiting the use of coal for heating London's homes.
According to the customs of that time, the death penalty was imposed for violating the edict.
With the invention of the steam engine, industry is gradually becoming an increasingly significant source of pollution due to a sharp increase in fuel consumption.
The development of metallurgy and related industries leads to increased atmospheric pollution, the formation of wastewater and solid waste.
Due to the development of railways, transport is becoming an increasingly solid source of atmospheric pollution.
With the advent of internal combustion engines and large thermal power plants, as well as with the further development of the chemical industry, the nature of environmental pollution is changing qualitatively and quantitatively.
Significant amounts of nitrogen oxides, lead and mercury compounds, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, hydrocarbons, aldehydes, benzpyrene, etc.are released into the atmosphere; a large number of various chemical toxicants enter water bodies.
The level of industrial waste is changing qualitatively.
In the XX century, in connection with the scientific and technical revolution, the problem of the relationship between society and nature takes on a critical character.
This is due to the deterioration of the quality of the natural environment surrounding a person as a result of industrialization and urbanization, the depletion of traditional energy and raw materials, the gradual increase in the demographic burden on nature, the violation of natural ecological balances, the destruction of certain species of animals and plants, the negative genetic consequences of pollution of nature by waste from human production activities, including the danger of genetic degeneration of the person himself.
If people do not take measures to prevent environmental degradation, the existing environmental crisis can turn into an environmental catastrophe.
The scientific and technological revolution, which caused the intensification of production processes, led to a sharp increase in the use of various natural resources.
The intensity of the use of natural resources and the closely related state of the environment are objectively influenced by two groups of factors:
1) the scientific and technological revolution and its manifestation in the production activity of human society;
2) demographic factors (population growth, urbanization).
These factors determine the level of development of productive forces, which, in turn, determines the degree of impact of human society on natural resources and environmental pollution (Fig. 1).
Changes in the environment caused by the consumption of natural resources and pollution affect a person and his health through biological links and a complex system of feedbacks, including social economy and socio ecological conditions.
ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT ON NATURE.
CLASSIFICATION OF ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS
In the course of his life and activity, a person affects the environment in one way or another.
The human impact on various elements of the environment and factors generated by man and his economic activity is called anthropogenic (from Greek. anthropos - man).
The anthropogenic impact on the environment is destructive.
Anthropogenic factors lead to the depletion of natural resources, pollution of the natural environment and the formation of artificial landscapes.
Human activity leads to the homogenization of biosphere systems.
People are increasingly "erasing" elementary ecosystems, turning them into monotonous agricultural systems, rather monotonous cultural landscapes in terms of biogeochemical characteristics.
The degree of closure of biogeochemical cycles is reduced at the same time.
In addition, the mass extermination of animal and plant species by humans changes the natural processes (primarily the ecological balance) in the biosphere.
Anthropogenic impacts on the biosphere "replaced" biogenic evolution, destroying the natural systems of nature.
Evolution is forced to go extensively, under the influence of external factors, at a pace dictated by the transformation of nature by man, and not by the course of natural events.
The totality of anthropogenic impacts on the ecosphere and the human habitat can be considered according to several criteria:
1. The general nature of the processes of anthropogenic impact, predetermined by the forms of human activity: a) changing landscapes and the integrity of natural complexes; b) withdrawal of natural resources; c) environmental pollution.
2. Material and energy nature of impacts: mechanical, physical (thermal, electromagnetic, radiation, radioactive, acoustic), physico chemical, chemical, biological factors and agents and their various combinations.
3. Categories of objects of impact: natural landscape complexes, the earth's surface, soil, subsoil, vegetation, wildlife, water bodies, atmosphere, microenvironment and microclimate of habitat, people and other recipients.
4. Quantitative characteristics of the impact: their spatial scale (local, regional, global), uniqueness and multiplicity, the strength of the impact and the degree of their danger (intensity of factors and effects; characteristics of the "dose - effect" type, threshold; tolerance according to regulatory environmental and sanitary criteria; the degree of risk, etc.).
5. Time parameters and differences of impacts according to the nature of the upcoming changes: short term and long term, persistent and unstable, direct and indirect, having pronounced or hidden trace effects, causing chain reactions, reversible and irreversible, etc.
The latter classification categories are also associated with the division of all anthropogenic changes into intentional and unintentional.
Deliberate transformations are the development of land for crops or perennial plantings, the construction of reservoirs, canals and irrigation systems, the construction of cities, industrial enterprises and communication routes, the digging of cuts, pits, mines and drilling wells for mining, the drainage of swamps, etc.
Unintended changes are environmental pollution, changes in the gas composition of the atmosphere, climate changes, acid rain, acceleration of metal corrosion and destruction of cultural monuments, the formation of photochemical fogs( smog), ozone layer disturbances, the development of erosion processes, the onset of the desert, environmental disasters as a result of major accidents, impoverishment of the species composition of biocenoses, the development of environmental pathology in the population, etc.
Unintended environmental changes come to the fore not only because many of them are very significant and important, but also because they are less controlled and are fraught with unforeseen effects.
In addition, some of them, for example, man made CO emissions or thermal pollution, are fundamentally inevitable, and the elimination of others requires enormous costs.
The most important forms of anthropogenic impact on nature include: overexploitation and depletion of natural resources and man made environmental pollution.
In the second half of the XX century, the increased rates of use of mineral resources caused a sharp increase in the scale of mineral extraction and expanded the geography of mineral extraction.
In 1913, 5 tons of mineral raw materials were extracted per inhabitant of the Earth, in 1940 - 7.4, in 1960 - 14.3, in the late 70s - 25 tons.
If the current rates of use of mineral raw materials are maintained, this value will increase by 1.8 times by 2000.
In 1998, compared to 1950, the world's expenditure on timber increased by more than 2 times, paper - by 6, water - by 3, grain - by almost 3, and the use of coal as fuel increased by 4 times.
Steel production has also increased 4 times.
Over the past 50 years, the world has lost almost half of its forest area.
Excessive fishing has led to the fact that fish populations are on the verge of disaster.
The continued reduction of biodiversity on the planet leads to further destabilization of the balance in the biosphere.
Soil erosion has become a serious problem in many countries of the world.
In the United States, Europe, China, India, the Middle East and Africa, water supplies are declining.
Lack of water also means a shortage of food.
70% of the world's water resources are used for growing crops.
The use of natural resources will increase dramatically over the next 50 years.
It is expected that the population of our planet will increase by 60% by this time.
Technogenic pollution of various natural environments has a sharply negative impact on living organisms, human living conditions and his health.
Anthropogenic environmental pollution has become global in recent decades, which has led to a sharp deterioration of the state of natural ecosystems and significantly reduced the available operational resources on Earth.
In addition, various types of man made pollution are the cause of many environmental problems of our time (destruction of the ozone shield, climate change, the problem of waste, reduction of biodiversity).
The human impact on the environment in the modern era has become a factor of geological or even cosmic scale, surpassing all natural forces that have ever influenced the evolution of life, the evolution of the Earth's biosphere.
Practical human activity at the present stage of the development of the biosphere leads to the violation of various physical laws related to the ecological balance in nature, in particular the Le Chatelier - Brown principle.
Since the mechanism of implementation of the Le Chatelier - Brown principle in the biosphere is based on the functioning of living systems, this functioning, as postulated by V. I. Vernadsky, serves as the main regulator of all earth processes.
Currently, the operation of the Le Chatelier - Brown principle within the biosphere is violated.
(It is believed that this principle is not observed in the disturbed biota of the land and continues to be observed in the undisturbed biota of the ocean.)
Today, there is a deviation of the carbon cycle from the equilibrium pre industrial state.
If at the end of the last century there was still an increase in biological productivity and biomass in response to an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, this phenomenon has not been detected since the beginning of this century.
On the contrary, biota throws out carbon dioxide, and therefore its biomass is automatically reduced.
(In the biota of the land, there is a reduction in the mass of organic carbon at a rate of 1.1 GtS/year.
The biota of the ocean absorbs organic carbon at a rate of 2.3 GtS/year.)
THE BASIC LAWS OF THE "MAN - NATURE" SYSTEM"
The modern nature of the relationship in the system "man nature", or" man - biosphere", can be called antagonistic.
Man in the process of cognition and development of nature has come into conflict with it.
A number of laws and regulations objectively characterize the modern relationship between man and nature.
The law of feedback of the interaction "man - biosphere" by P. Dansero (1957), or the boomerang law (B. Commoner's fourth law, 1974): the anthropogenic load on the biosphere has acquired such a scale that the very existence of humanity is at risk.
The law of irreversibility of the interaction "man biosphere" by P. Dansero (1957): renewable natural resources become non renewable in the event of a profound change in the environment, significant overexploitation, reaching total destruction or extreme depletion, and therefore exceeding the possibilities of their restoration.
This corresponds to the modern phase of the development of the system of relations "man nature".
Modern civilization and culture do not provide stable conditions for the existence of life on Earth, nor of man as a part of it.
The rule of the measure of transformation of natural systems: during the operation of natural systems, it is impossible to exceed certain limits that allow these systems to preserve the properties of self support (self regulation).
The American ecologist B. Commoner proposed a number of laws reflecting the universal connection of processes and phenomena in nature (1974):
1. "Everything is connected to everything".
The biosphere is a single system of living organisms that has the ability to self regulate and maintain balance.
These same properties, under the influence of external overloads, can lead to a dramatic denouement.
The level of anthropogenic impact on the biosphere leads to an overload of its self regulating mechanisms.
2. " Everything has to go somewhere."
There is no such thing as "garbage" in nature.
In natural systems, any "waste" generates new life, is included in the biosphere cycles.
Waste from anthropogenic activities - new substances and compounds are dispersed in nature, burden vital processes, forming ecological "dead ends".
3. " Nature knows best."
It is not necessary to strive to "improve nature".
Remember: all the power of man is in the knowledge of the laws of nature and the ability to change them.
The best way is a reasonable human activity in relation to nature.
4. "Nothing is given for free" (the law of the boomerang).
In nature, nothing can be won or lost.
Everything that has been extracted by human labor must be returned.
The payment cannot be avoided, it can only be postponed.
PROSPECTS FOR THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CIVILIZATION AND THE BIOSPHERE
V. I. Vernadsky believed that humanity will be able to ensure its future only if it takes responsibility for the development of the biosphere as a whole.
And for the development of society and the nature of which it is a part.
Throughout history, the evolution of living matter and the entire biosphere has followed the general laws of development - according to the principle of "natural self organization".
At present, the evolution of the biosphere is losing its "naturalness" and the mind begins to control it.
This new state of the biosphere has been called the "noosphere".
V. I. Vernadsky for the first time formulated the law on the inevitability of the transition of the biosphere to the highest stage - the noosphere, or the sphere of reason (from the Greek. noos mind), i.e. a reasonably and harmoniously organized life.
French scientists E. Le Roy (the author of the term, 1927) and P. Teilhard de Chardin played an important role in the development of the doctrine of the noosphere.
According to Vernadsky, the way to the noosphere is in the purposeful development of not only nature, but also society.
The noosphere is not just a sphere of reason, but mainly the sphere of reasonable human activity in relation to nature, i.e. to one's own environment.
V. I. Vernadsky understood what the growing contradiction between society and nature means for a person.
However, both V. I. Vernadsky and P. Teilhard de Chardin, who lived until the middle of the XX century, were too optimistic about the future.
The last decades show that humanity is still far from the noosphere in its ideal understanding.
Practically, from the point of view of the nature of modern relationships in the "man - nature" system, a person acts as a "reasonably unintelligent parasite" (according to N. F. Reimers): according to the threats of global consequences and the results of local environmental disasters, as well as the general course of the process of habitat destruction, he is unreasonable, but according to the declared desire to preserve this environment, he is reasonable.
What can replace the current type of interaction between civilization and the biosphere, if a person is able to reverse the inertia of spontaneous, uncontrolled growth of the economy, population, destruction of nature?
There are two main points of view on this issue:
1) technicist.
Its supporters rely on scientific and technological progress as the key to solving the global environmental problem.
What would you expect from the technique in this case?
Obviously, only one thing: partial or complete replacement of biota in the regulation of the environment.
(According to V. G. Gorshkov, the information flow processed by the biota when it performs the function of regulating the environment is 15 orders of magnitude higher than the anticipated technical capabilities of civilization.
He also convincingly showed that even if humanity coped with all the scientific and technical problems and constructed an appropriate system (in fact, the technosphere in the variant in which it replaces the biosphere), this system would require 99% of the labor and energy costs of civilization.);
2) natural.
Proponents of this point of view proceed from the impossibility and inexpediency of transferring the regulatory functions of biota to technical systems and see the only way to solve the global environmental problem: reducing the anthropogenic impact on the biosphere to a level at which it will return to an undisturbed state and will be able to remain stable in it, since the regulatory abilities of the biota will be sufficient to maintain it (this limit level is called the economic capacity of the biosphere).
Such a transition to sustainable development requires radical changes in human civilization, in all spheres of human life.
Modernity dictates the need for a harmonious joint development of man and nature.
The co evolution of man and the biosphere is a necessary condition for the development of mankind, its transition to the era of the noosphere.
