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Julius Caesar biography, information, personal life
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (Latin Gaius Iulius Caesar).
Born on July 12 or 13, 100 BC -died on March 15, 44 BC .
The ancient Roman statesman and politician, commander, writer.
Consul of 59, 48, 46, 45 and 44 BC, dictator of 49, 48-47 and 46-44 BC, Grand Pontiff from 63 BC.
Gaius Julius Caesar was born into the ancient patrician family of the Julii.
In the V IV centuries BC , the Julii played a significant role in the life of Rome.
Among the representatives of the family came, in particular, one dictator, one master of cavalry (deputy dictator) and one member of the college of decemvirs who developed the laws of the Ten Tables - the original version of the famous laws of the Twelve Tables.
Like most families with an ancient history, the Julii had a common myth about their origin.
They raised their family to the goddess Venus through Aeneas.
The mythical version of the origin of the Julii was already well known by 200 BC, and Cato the Elder wrote down a version about the etymology of the generic name of the Julii.
In his opinion, the first bearer of this name, Yul, received a nickname from the Greek word "οουλος " (fluff, the first hair on the cheeks and chin).
Almost all the Julii in the V IV centuries BC wore the cognomen Yul, which was probably originally the only one in their family.
The branch of the Julius Caesars probably descended from the Julius Julius, although the links between them are unknown.
The first known Caesar was the praetor of 208 BC, mentioned by Titus Livy.
The etymology of the cognomen "Caesar" is reliably unknown and was forgotten already in the Roman era.
Aelius Spartianus, one of the authors of the biographies of the Augustans, recorded four versions that existed by the IV century AD: "the most learned and educated people believe that the first one who was so named received this name from the name of an elephant (which is called caesai in the language of the Moors), killed by him in battle; [or] because he was born from a dead mother and was cut out of her womb; or because he came out of the womb of his parent already with long hair; or because he had such shiny gray blue eyes, such as people do not have."
Until now, the reliable etymology of the name is unclear, but it is more often assumed that the cognomen originates from the Etruscan language (aisar - god; the Roman names Caesius, Caesonius and Caesennius have a similar origin).
By the beginning of the I century BC, two branches of the Julius Caesars were known in Rome.
They were in a fairly close, but not exactly established relationship with each other.
The two branches were registered in different tribes, and by the 80th BC they had a completely opposite political orientation, focusing on two warring politicians.
The closest relatives of the future dictator were guided by Gaius Marius (his wife was Julia, Gaius ' aunt), and the Caesars from another branch supported Sulla.
At the same time, the latter branch played a greater role in public life than the one to which Guy belonged.
Gaius ' relatives on the side of his mother and grandmother could not boast of kinship with the gods, but they all belonged to the elite of Roman society - the nobility.
Caesar's mother, Aurelia Cotta, belonged to the rich and influential Plebeian Aurelian family.
The relatives of Gaius ' grandmother Marcia traced their lineage to the fourth Roman king Ancus Marcius.
The date of Caesar's birth remains a subject of debate for researchers.
The evidence of sources on this issue varies.
Indirect indications of most ancient authors allow us to date the dictator's birth to the 100th year BC, although Eutropius mentions that during the battle of Munda (March 17, 45 BC) he was 56 years old.
In two important systematic sources about the life of the dictator - his biography of the authorship of Suetonius and Plutarch the beginning of the text with stories about the circumstances of his birth has not been preserved.
The reason for the discrepancies in historiography was, however, the discrepancy between the time of Caesar's master's studies and the well known practice: Caesar held all the magistracies earlier than the normal sequence (cursus honorum) by about two years.
Because of this, Theodor Mommsen proposed to consider the date of Caesar's birth as 102 BC .
Since the beginning of the XX century, other solutions to the discrepancy have been proposed.
Guy's birthday is also causing discussions - on July 12 or 13.
The fourth day before the Ides of Quintilius (July 12) is mentioned by Macrobius in the Saturnalia.
Dion Cassius, however, says that after the dictator's death, his birth date was moved from July 13 to July 12 by a special decree of the second triumvirate.
Thus, there is no consensus on the date of Caesar's birth.
The year of his birth is most often recognized as 100 BC (in France, it is more often attributed to 101 BC, as suggested by Jerome Carcopino).
The dictator's birthday is equally often considered July 12 or 13.
The house where Caesar grew up was located in the Subura, an area of Rome that had a reputation for being dysfunctional.
As a child, he studied Greek, literature, and rhetoric at home.
Physical exercises, swimming, horse riding were practiced.
Among the teachers of young Gaius, the great rhetorician Gniphon is known, who was also one of Cicero's teachers.
Around 85 BC , Caesar lost his father: according to Pliny the Elder, he died while bending over to put on shoes.
After the death of his father, Caesar, who passed the initiation rite, actually headed the entire Julius family, since all the closest relatives of a man older than him died.
Soon Guy got engaged to Kossucia, a girl from a rich family from the equestrian class (according to another version, they managed to get married).
In the mid 80s BC , Cinna nominated Caesar to the honorary position of flamin Jupiter.
This priest was bound by many sacred restrictions, which seriously limited the possibilities of studying magistracies.
To take office, he first had to marry an old confarreatio rite to a girl from a patrician family, and Cinna offered Gaius his daughter Cornelia.
Young Julius agreed, although he had to break off his engagement with Kossucia.
However, Caesar's assumption of office is being questioned.
According to Lily Ross Taylor, the grand pontiff Quintus Mucius Scaevola (an opponent of Marius and Cinna) refused to hold the inauguration ceremony of Gaius.
Ernst Badian, however, believes that Caesar was still put into office.
As a rule, the appointment of Caesar is considered in historiography as an insurmountable obstacle to his further political career.
However, there is also an opposite point of view: the occupation of such an honorary position was a good opportunity to strengthen the authority of the ancient family for this branch of the Caesars, not all representatives of which sought the highest magistracy of the consul.
Shortly after his marriage to Cornelia, Cinna was killed by rebellious soldiers, and the following year a civil war began, in which Caesar probably did not participate.
With the establishment of the dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla and the beginning of the proscriptions, Caesar's life was in danger: the dictator did not spare political opponents and personal enemies, and Gaius turned out to be the nephew of Gaius Marius and the son in law of Cinna.
Sulla demanded that Caesar divorce his wife, which was not a unique case of proof of loyalty, but he refused to do it.
In the end, Sulla put Caesar's name on the proscription list, and he was forced to leave Rome.
Sources say that Caesar was hiding for a long time, handing out bribes to the Sullans who were looking for him, but these stories are unlikely.
Meanwhile, Gaius ' influential relatives in Rome managed to secure a pardon for Caesar.
An additional circumstance that softened the dictator was the origin of Caesar from the patrician class, whose representatives the conservative Sulla never executed.
Soon Caesar left Italy and joined the retinue of Marcus Minucius Thermus, governor of the province of Asia.
The name of Caesar was well known in this province: about ten years ago, his father was its governor.
Guy became one of the contubernals of the Term - the children of senators and young horsemen who were trained in military affairs and provincial administration under the supervision of the acting magistrate.
First, Thermus entrusted the young patrician with negotiations with the king of Bithynia, Nicomedes IV.
Caesar managed to convince the king to place part of his fleet at the disposal of Thermus, so that the governor could capture the city of Mytilene on Lesbos, which did not recognize the results of the First Mithridatic War and resisted the Romans.
Gaius ' stay with the Bithynian king later became the source of many rumors about their sexual relationship.
After successfully completing this assignment, Thermus sent troops against Mytilene, and soon the Romans took the city.
After the battle, Caesar was awarded the civil crown (Latin corona civica) - an honorary military award, which was relied on for saving the life of a Roman citizen.
After the capture of Mytilene, the campaign on Lesbos ended.
Soon Termus resigned, and Caesar went to Cilicia to its governor Publius Servilius Vatia, who was organizing a military campaign against the pirates.
However, when news of Sulla's death came from Italy in 78 BC, Caesar immediately returned to Rome.
In 78 BC, the consul Marcus Aemilius Lepidus tried to raise a rebellion among the Italians in order to repeal the laws of Sulla.
According to Suetonius, Lepidus invited Caesar to join the rebellion, but Gaius refused.
In 77 BC , Caesar brought to court the Sullanian Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella on charges of extortion during his governorship in Macedonia.
D olabella was acquitted after the largest judicial speakers spoke in his support.
The accusatory speech delivered by Caesar was so successful that it was distributed for a long time in handwritten copies.
The following year, Gaius began the prosecution of another Sullanian, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, but he requested protection from the people's tribunes, and the trial did not take place.
Shortly after the failure of the trial of Antony, Caesar went to improve his oratorical skills in Rhodes to the famous rhetorician Apollonius Molon, Cicero's mentor.
During the journey, Caesar was captured by pirates who had been fishing in the Eastern Mediterranean for a long time.
He was held on the small island of Farmakussa (Farmakonisi) in the Dodecanese archipelago.
The pirates demanded a large ransom of 50 talents (300 thousand Roman denarii).
Plutarch's version that Caesar on his own initiative increased the amount of the ransom from 20 talents to 50 is certainly implausible.
Ancient authors colorfully describe Guy's stay on the island: he allegedly joked with the kidnappers and recited poems of his own composition to them.
After the ambassadors of the cities of Asia bought Caesar, he immediately equipped a squadron to capture the pirates themselves, which he managed to do.
Having captured his captors, Guy asked to judge and punish their new governor of Asia, Mark Yunk, but he refused.
After that, Guy himself organized the execution of the pirates - they were crucified on crosses.
Suetonius adds some details of the execution as an illustration of the softness of Caesar's character: "To the pirates, with whom he was a prisoner, he swore that they would die on the cross, but when he captured them, he ordered them to be stabbed first and then crucified."
During his second stay in the East, Caesar once again visited the Bithynian king Nicomedes.
He also participated at the very beginning of the Third Mithridatic War at the head of a separate auxiliary unit, but soon left the combat zone and returned to Rome around 74 BC.
The following year, he was co opted to the priestly college of pontiffs in place of his deceased uncle Gaius Aurelius Cotta.
Soon Caesar wins the election to the military tribunes.
The exact date of his tribunate is unknown: the year 73 is often suggested, but a date of 72 or 71 BC is more likely.
What Caesar was doing during this period is not known for sure.
It is suggested that Caesar could have been involved in the suppression of the Spartacus uprising - if not in combat, then at least in the training of recruits.
It is also suggested that it was during the suppression of the uprising that Caesar became close friends with Marcus Licinius Crassus, who in the future played a significant role in the career of Gaius.
At the beginning of 69 BC, Cornelia, Caesar's wife, and his aunt Julia die almost simultaneously.
At their funeral, Guy made two speeches that attracted the attention of contemporaries.
First, public speeches in memory of deceased women were practiced only since the end of the II century BC, but they usually remembered elderly matrons, but not young women.
Secondly, in a speech in honor of his aunt, he recalled her marriage to Gaius Marius and showed the people his wax bust.
Probably, Julia's funeral was the first public demonstration of the image of the general since the beginning of the dictatorship of Sulla, when Maria was actually consigned to oblivion.
In the same year, Caesar became Quaestor, which guaranteed him a place in the Senate.
Caesar performed the duties of a quaestor in the province of Distant Spain.
The details of his mission are unknown, although usually the quaestor in the province dealt with financial issues.
Apparently, Gaius accompanied the governor Gaius Antistius Veta on trips around the province, carrying out his instructions.
It was probably during the questura that he met Lucius Cornelius Balbus, who later became Caesar's closest associate.
Shortly after returning from the province, Gaius married Pompeia, the granddaughter of Sulla (she was not a close relative of the influential Gnaeus Pompey the Great at that time).
At the same time, Caesar began to openly lean towards the support of Gnaeus Pompey, in particular, he was almost the only senator who supported the law of Gabinius on the transfer of extraordinary powers to Gnaeus in the fight against pirates.
Caesar also supported the law of Manilius on granting a new command to Pompey, although he was no longer alone here.
In 66 BC , Caesar became the caretaker of the Appian Way and repaired it at his own expense (according to another version, he was engaged in repairing the road in 65 BC, as an aedile).
In those years, the main creditor of a young politician who did not skimp on spending was probably Crassus.
In 66 BC , Caesar was elected curule aedile for the next year, whose duties included organizing urban construction, transport, trade, daily life of Rome and solemn events (usually at his own expense).
In April 65 BC, the new Aedile organized and held the Megalesian Games, and in September - the Roman Games, which surprised even the Romans who were experienced in entertainment with their luxury.
Caesar shared the costs of both events equally with his colleague Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, but only Gaius received all the glory.
Initially, Caesar planned to show a record number of gladiators at the Roman Games (according to another version, gladiatorial fights were arranged by him in memory of his father), but the Senate, fearing a riot of many armed slaves, issued a special decree prohibiting one person from bringing more than a certain number of gladiators to Rome.
Julius obeyed the restrictions on the number of gladiators, but gave each of them silver armor, so that his gladiatorial fights were still remembered by the Romans.
In addition, the Aedile overcame the resistance of conservative senators and restored all the trophies of Gaius Marius, the demonstration of which was prohibited by Sulla.
In 64 BC , Caesar headed the permanent criminal court for cases of robbery accompanied by murder (quaestio de sicariis).
In the courts under his presidency, many participants in Sulla's proscriptions were convicted, although this dictator issued a law that did not allow criminal prosecution against them.
Despite Caesar's active activity in condemning the dictator's accomplices, the active perpetrator of the murders of the proscribed Lucius Sergius Catilina was completely acquitted and was able to nominate his candidacy for the consulship for the next year.
The initiator of a significant part of the trials, however, was Caesar's opponent, Marcus Porcius Cato the Younger.
Caesar the Great Pontiff:
At the beginning of 63 BC, the great pontiff Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius died, and the highest position in the system of Roman religious magistracies became vacant.
In the late 80s BC , Lucius Cornelius Sulla returned the ancient custom of co opting high priests by the college of pontiffs, but shortly before the new elections, Titus Labienus returned the procedure for electing a great pontiff by voting in 17 tribes out of 35.
Caesar put up his candidacy.
The alternative candidates were Quintus Lutatius Catulus Capitolinus and Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus.
Ancient historians report numerous bribes during the elections, because of which Guy's debts grew greatly.
Since the tribes that voted were determined by lot immediately before the election, Caesar was forced to bribe representatives of all 35 tribes.
Gaius ' creditors were sympathetic to spending on a prestigious but unprofitable position: his successful election testified to his popularity on the eve of the elections of praetors and consuls.
According to legend, leaving the house before the announcement of the results, he told his mother "Either I will return as pontiff, or I will not return at all"; according to another version: "Today, Mother, you will see your son either as a high priest or an exile."
The vote took place, according to various versions, either on March 6, or at the end of the year, and Caesar won.
According to Suetonius, his advantage over his opponents turned out to be huge.
The election of Julius as the grand pontiff for life attracted universal attention to him and almost certainly guaranteed a successful political career.
Unlike Flamin Jupiter, the great pontiff could participate in both civil and military activities without serious sacred restrictions.
Although people who were former consuls (consulars) were usually elected as great pontiffs, there were also cases in Roman history when relatively young people held this honorary position.
Thus, Caesar could not be accused of becoming a great pontiff only because of exorbitant ambitions.
Immediately after his election, Caesar used the right to live in the state house of the great pontiff and moved from the Subura to the very center of the city, on the Sacred Road.
Caesar and the conspiracy of Catilina:
In 65 BC, according to some contradictory evidence of ancient historians, Caesar participated in the unsuccessful plot of Lucius Sergius Catilina to seize power.
However, the question of the" first conspiracy of Catilina " remains problematic.
The evidence of the sources varies, which gives grounds for some researchers to completely deny the existence of the "first conspiracy".
Rumors about Caesar's participation in the first conspiracy of Catiline, if it existed, were spread by the opponents of Crassus and Caesar already in the 50s BC and certainly do not correspond to reality.
Richard Billows believes that the spread of rumors about the" first conspiracy " was beneficial to Cicero, and then to Caesar's political opponents.
In 63 BC, after his failure in the election of consuls, Catilina made a new, more famous attempt to seize power.
The possible involvement of Caesar in the conspiracy was debated in the ancient era, but reliable evidence was never provided.
In the days of the culmination of the crisis, Catulus and Piso demanded that Cicero arrest Caesar for complicity in the conspiracy, but to no avail.
According to Adrian Goldsworthy, by 63 BC , Caesar could count on legal ways to occupy new positions and was not interested in participating in the conspiracy.
On December 3, 63 BC , Cicero presented evidence of the danger of the conspiracy, and the next day a number of conspirators were declared state criminals.
On December 5, the Senate, which met in the Temple of Concord, discussed a preventive measure for the conspirators: in emergency circumstances, it was decided to act without court approval.
Decimus Junius Silanus, who was elected consul the following year, advocated the death penalty , a punishment applied to Roman citizens in the rarest cases.
His proposal was met with approval.
Caesar came next.
His speech in the Senate, recorded by Sallust, is probably based on the real speech of Julius.
Sallust's version of the speech contains both a widespread appeal to Roman customs and traditions, and an unusual proposal to sentence the conspirators to life imprisonment - a punishment that was almost never used in Rome - with confiscation of property.
After Caesar, Cicero spoke, objecting to Gaius ' proposal (an edited recording of his fourth speech against Catilina has been preserved).
However, after the speech of the acting consul, many were still inclined to the proposal of Julius, but the floor was taken by Marcus Porcius Cato the Younger, who strongly opposed Caesar's initiative.
Cato also hinted at Caesar's involvement in the conspiracy and reproached the wavering senators for a lack of determination, after which the Senate voted to put the conspirators to death.
Since the meeting on December 5 was held with the doors open, the people listening attentively outside reacted violently to Cato's speech, including his hint about Caesar's connections with the conspirators, and after the meeting ended, they accompanied Gaius with threats.
As soon as he took office as praetor on January 1, 62 BC, Caesar used the right of legislative initiative of the magistrate and proposed to the people's Assembly to transfer the authority to restore the temple of Jupiter Capitoline from Quintus Lutatius Catulus to Gnaeus Pompey.
Catulus was engaged in the restoration of this temple for about 15 years and almost completed the work, but if this proposal was accepted, the name of Pompey would be mentioned in the dedicatory inscription on the pediment of this most important sanctuary of Rome, and not Catulus, an influential opponent of Caesar.
Guy also accused Catulus of embezzlement of public funds and demanded to report on expenses.
After the protest of the senators, the praetor withdrew his bill.
When on January 3, the tribune Quintus Caecilius Metellus Nepos proposed to recall Pompey to Rome to defeat the detachments of Catiline, Gaius supported this proposal, although the troops of the conspirators were already surrounded and doomed to defeat.
Apparently, Nepos, the brother - in law of Gnaeus, hoped by his proposal to allow Pompey to arrive in Italy without disbanding his troops.
After a mass brawl provoked by Nepos in the forum, the resolute Senate passed an emergency law to remove Nepos and Caesar from their posts, but a few days later Gaius was reinstated.
In the autumn, at the trial of Lucius Vettius, a participant in the conspiracy of Catiline, the accused told the judge that he had proof of Caesar's involvement in the conspiracy - his letter to Catiline.
In addition, during the interrogation in the Senate, the witness Quintus Curius stated that he had heard personally from Catilina about Caesar's participation in the preparation of the rebellion.
However, Cicero, at the request of Gaius, testified that he had told the consul everything he knew about the conspiracy, and thereby deprived the Curius of the reward for information and refuted his testimony.
Against the first accuser, Caesar acted very decisively, arresting both Vettius (he did not appear at the next meeting and did not present evidence of the praetor's guilt) and Judge Novius Niger (he accepted a denunciation of the senior magistrate).
In December 62 BC, a celebration in honor of the Good Goddess was held in Caesar's new house with the participation of only women, but it was interrupted after a man, Publius Clodius Pulcher, secretly entered the house.
The senators, having learned about the incident, decided to consider the incident a sacrilege, and also demanded that the holiday be held anew and the perpetrators be punished.
The latter meant the inevitable public disclosure of personal life Caesar, because there were rumors that Clodius came to Caesar's house in a woman's dress for his wife.
Without waiting for the trial, the pontiff divorced Pompeii Sulla.
The trial took place the following year, and Clodius was acquitted, because Caesar refused to testify against him.
Adrian Goldsworthy believes that Pompeii really had an affair with Clodius, but Caesar still did not dare to testify against the rapidly gaining popularity of the politician.
In addition, the majority of judges on the panel voted with signs with illegible inscriptions, not wanting to incur the wrath of supporters and opponents of Clodius.
During the trial, when Caesar was asked why he divorced his wife if he did not know anything about what had happened, he allegedly replied that Caesar's wife should be above suspicion (various sources cite different versions of this phrase.
According to Michael Grant, Caesar meant that the wife of the great pontiff, the high priest of Rome, should be above suspicion.
The British historian also points to another possible reason that accelerated the divorce - the absence of children for several years of marriage.
At the beginning of 61 BC , Caesar was supposed to go to the province of Distant Spain, the westernmost in the Roman Republic, to rule it as a propraetor, but numerous creditors made sure that he did not leave Rome without paying off huge debts.
Nevertheless, Crassus vouched for Caesar with the sum of 830 talents, although this huge sum hardly covered all the debts of the governor.
Thanks to Crassus, Gaius went to the province before the end of the trial of Clodius.
On the way to Spain, Caesar allegedly said, passing through a remote village, that "I would rather be the first here than the second in Rome" (according to another version, this phrase was uttered already on the way from Spain to Rome).
By the time of Caesar's arrival, there was a strong discontent with the Roman power and large debts in the underdeveloped northern and northeastern parts of the province.
Caesar immediately recruited a militia of local residents to subdue the discontented regions, which was presented as the extermination of bandits.
According to Dion Cassius, thanks to the military campaign, Caesar hoped to match Pompey with his victories, although it was possible to establish a lasting peace without military action.
Having at his disposal 30 cohorts (about 12 thousand soldiers), he approached the Herminian Mountains (the modern Serra da Estrela ridge) and demanded that the local tribes settle on the flat territory in order to deprive them of the opportunity to use their fortifications in the mountains in the event of an uprising.
Dion Cassius believes that Caesar hoped for a refusal from the very beginning, because he expected to use this answer as a motive for an attack.
After the mountain tribes refused to obey, the governor's troops attacked them and forced them to retreat to the Atlantic Ocean, from where the mountaineers sailed to the Berlenga Islands.
Caesar ordered several detachments to cross to the islands on small rafts, but the Lusitanians killed the entire Roman landing force.
After this failure, Gaius summoned a fleet from Hades and with its help sent a large force to the islands.
While the commander was conquering the mountain Lusitanians on the Atlantic coast, the neighbors of the exiled tribes began preparing to repel a possible attack by the governor.
Throughout the summer, propraetor subdued the scattered Lusitanians, storming a number of settlements and winning one fairly large battle.
Soon Caesar left the province and headed for Brigantia (modern La Coruna), quickly capturing the city and its surroundings.
In the end, the troops declared him emperor, which in the terminology of the middle of the I century BC meant recognition as a victorious commander.
Even then, Caesar proved himself a resolute commander, able to quickly move his troops.
After completing his campaign, Caesar turned to solving the daily problems of the province.
His energetic activity in the administrative sphere was manifested in the revision of taxation and in the analysis of court cases.
In particular, the governor abolished the tax imposed as a punishment for the support of the Lusitanians of Quintus Sertorius in the recent war.
In addition, it ruled that creditors could not recover more than two thirds of their annual income from debtors.
Given the difficult situation with the payment of loans and interest by residents of the province, such a measure turned out to be beneficial for both borrowers and creditors, since Caesar nevertheless confirmed the need for mandatory repayment of all debts.
Finally, Caesar may have banned human sacrifice, which was practiced in the province.
Some sources claim that the governor extorted money from wealthy residents of the province and robbed neutral tribes, but these evidences are probably based only on rumors.
Richard Billows believes that if Caesar had actually openly plundered the province, political opponents would have immediately brought him to court after returning to Rome.
In fact, there was no prosecution, nor even hints of its beginning, which indicates at least the caution of Caesar.
Roman legislation of the first century BC provided for the responsibility of the governor for extortion, but did not establish clear boundaries between a gift and a bribe, and therefore sufficiently cautious actions could not qualify as bribery.
Caesar could count on substantial gifts, since the inhabitants of the province (especially the rich south) saw in the young aristocrat a potentially influential patron the defender of their interests in Rome.
Masinta's extremely energetic defense showed them that Caesar would do anything to protect his clients.
Apparently, Caesar received the greatest income from civil activities in the southern part of the province, since the main military operations were conducted in the impoverished northern and northeastern regions of Distant Spain, in which it was hardly possible to enrich oneself.
After the governorship in the province, Caesar significantly improved his financial situation, and creditors no longer bothered him.
Probably, Guy did not pay off all his debts, but he proved that he was able to repay loans by taking up new positions.
As a result, the lenders could temporarily stop disturbing Caesar, counting on a new, more profitable appointment, which Gaius ' opponents later tried to use.
At the beginning of 60 BC , Caesar decided to return to Rome without waiting for his successor.
The early termination of the powers of the governor with the delegation of powers to a junior magistrate (probably a quaestor) was considered unusual, but it was sometimes practiced.
Having received reports of Caesar's victories, the Senate considered him worthy of a triumph.
In addition to this honorary celebration, in the summer of 60 BC , Caesar hoped to participate in the election of consuls for the next year, since he had reached the minimum age for holding a new position and had passed all previous magistracies in the cursus honorum system.
However, the candidate for the triumph did not have the right to cross the sacred borders of the city (pomerium) before the event, and a personal presence in Rome was required to register a candidate for consulship.
Since the election date was already set, Caesar asked the senators to grant him the right to register in absentia.
There was already a precedent for such a decision in Roman history: in 71 BC, the Senate allowed Gnaeus Pompey to stand as a candidate, who was also preparing a triumph.
Caesar's opponents were not in the mood to meet him halfway.
Having presented Gaius with a choice between triumph and the consulate, they may have hoped for Caesar's choice of triumph, hoping that Gaius ' creditors would not wait another year, but would demand their money immediately.
However, Caesar had another reason not to postpone participation in the elections until next year: election to a new position in "his own year" (Lat. suo anno), that is, in the first year, when it was permissible by law, it was considered especially honorable.
At the last meeting of the Senate before the election, when it was still possible to accept a special permit, Cato took the floor and held a speech all day, until the closing of the meeting.
Thus, Caesar did not receive special permission, and he entered the city, making a choice in favor of taking a new position and refusing to triumph.
By the summer of 60 BC , Caesar had agreed to cooperate with a rich and educated, but little known to the public Roman Lucius Lucceus, who also put up his candidacy.
According to Suetonius, " they agreed that Lucceus would promise the centuries his own money on behalf of both."
The Roman author mentions that his rival Bibulus also bribed voters with the approval of the senators: his father in law Cato called it "bribery in the interests of the state".
According to the results of the elections, Caesar and Bibulus became consuls for 59 BC.
At about the same time, Caesar entered into secret negotiations with Pompey and Crassus to create a political alliance: in exchange for the support of Gaius by two of the most influential and richest Romans, the new consul undertook to pass several laws in their interests, which had previously been blocked by the Senate.
The fact is that Pompey, who returned from the Third Mithridatic War back in 62 BC, has not yet achieved the ratification of all the orders made in the eastern provinces.
He also could not overcome the resistance of the Senate on the issue of granting land allotments to veterans of his army.
Crassus also had reasons for dissatisfaction with the Senate, who defended the interests of the publicans (tax collectors), who unsuccessfully asked to reduce the amount of the tax payment for the province of Asia.
Thanks to the unification around Caesar, both politicians hoped to overcome the the opposition of senators and pass laws that are favorable for themselves.
It is unclear what Caesar received from the union.
Undoubtedly, the very rapprochement with two influential politicians and their equally high ranking friends, clients and relatives was beneficial to him.
There is a version that when organizing the triumvirate, Caesar hatched plans to seize power with his help (a similar point of view was shared, in particular, by Theodor Mommsen and Jerome Carcopino).
Despite the fact that Pompey and Crassus had long been at enmity and even prevented the implementation of laws in the interests of each other, Caesar managed to reconcile them.
Suetonius claims that Caesar first entered into an alliance with Pompey, but Christian Meyer believes that he first agreed to cooperate with Crassus, who was closer to him.
It is possible that it was planned to include a fourth member in the political union - Cicero.
The union of three politicians is now known as the first triumvirate (Latin triumviratus - "the union of three men"), but this term arose by analogy with the later second triumvirate, whose members were officially called triumvirs.
The exact date of the creation of the triumvirate is unknown, which is a consequence of its secret nature.
Following the contradictory versions of ancient writers, modern historians also offer different versions: July August of 60 BC, the period shortly before or shortly after the elections, after the elections, or 59 BC (in the final form).
At the very beginning of the consulate, Guy ordered the daily publication of the minutes of the meetings of the Senate and the People's Assembly: apparently, this was done so that citizens could monitor the actions of politicians.
Caesar, on behalf of the Roman Republic, recognized Ptolemy XII Auletes as the pharaoh of Egypt, which was tantamount to renouncing his claims to Egypt using a widely known (probably forged)will in Rome Ptolemy XI Alexander II.
According to this document, Egypt was to come under the rule of Rome, just as the Kingdom of Pergamum was transferred to the Roman Republic by the will of Attalus III.
Ancient historians report that the issue was settled for a huge bribe, which was divided among the triumvirs.
Despite the significant support for Caesar's initiatives at the beginning of the year, by the end of 59 BC, the popularity of the triumvirs had fallen significantly.
By the beginning of Caesar's reign, the Romans controlled the southern part of the territory of modern France, where the province of Narbonne Gaul was formed.
At the end of March 58 BC , Guy arrived in Genava (modern Geneva), where he entered into negotiations with the leaders of the Celtic tribe of the Helvetii, who began to migrate due to the onslaught of the Germans.
Caesar managed to prevent the Helvetians from entering the territory of the Roman Republic, and after they entered the lands of the Aedui tribe allied to the Romans, Gaius pursued and defeated them.
In the same year, he defeated the troops of the German leader Ariovistus, who was trying to gain a foothold on the Gallic lands of the left bank of the Rhine.
In 57 BC , Caesar, having no formal reason for war, attacked the tribes of the Belgae in northeastern Gaul and defeated them in the battles of Axon and Sabis.
The general's legate, Publius Licinius Crassus, bloodlessly subdued the lands in the lower reaches of the Loire.
However, the following year, the Gauls conquered by Crassus united against the Roman conquest.
Caesar was forced to divide his forces between Titus Labienus, who was supposed to subdue the Trever tribe in Belgica, Publius Crassus (he was entrusted with the conquest of Aquitaine) and Quintus Titurius Sabinus, who suppressed the peripheral tribes of the rebels.
Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus began the construction of a fleet on the Loire capable of fighting with the maritime tribes, and with
