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Topic: The development of the theater of Europe in the early mid 20th century
Type of work: Control work
Subject: Cultural Studies All tests on cultural studies Download Read the text online
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Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine
Control work
By subject: "History" On the topic:
"The development of the theater of Europe in the early mid XX century"
Odessa 2010
Plan
Introduction
The first half of the XX century in the history and culture of Western Europe
European theater in the XX century
Phenomena in drama
Conclusions
Literature
Introduction
Dramatic poetry got its name from the Greek word "drama", which means action, since the essence of dramatic poetry consists in depicting events as if taking place before the eyes of the audience.
Dramatic works are written for the theater.
A play can only make a proper impression when it is staged on the stage.
The scenery, costumes, make up, recitation of the actors and their facial expressions all this makes up for what is not available in a dramatic work, that is, a description and a story on behalf of the author himself.
Dramatic poetry originated in Greece from ritual songs in honor of the god Dionysus, otherwise Bacchus.
Holidays were established in honor of Dionysus, divine services were performed, sacrifices were offered, accompanied by the singing of hymns, or religious odes, which were called dithyrambs and were of two kinds: gloomy and joyful.
The first recalled the suffering of the beloved God, and the second his triumph.
During the sacrifice, the leader of the choir told about the adventures of Dionysus, and the choir in songs expressed either sympathy for the suffering deity, or joy at his triumph over his enemies.
Over time, the story of the adventures of Dionysus began to be conducted by two persons, as a result of which a dramatic dialogue (conversation) appeared.
Then, little by little, the story began to be replaced by a visual depiction of the adventures of Dionysus — a dramatic action appeared.
The Greeks liked the visual depiction of the fate of Dionysus so much that they began to watch with pleasure a similar depiction of events from the lives of other gods, demigods and great people in general, and later ordinary mortals.
Poets, gradually expanding the content of dramatic works, began to take care of satisfying not the religious feeling, but the aesthetic, that is, the feeling that we experience when we enjoy the beautiful, and the drama gradually moved from the field of religious rites to the field of poetic works.
Along with the development of dramatic poetry, theaters, that is, spectacles, for dramatic performances began to be organized in Greece.
The ancient Greek drama reached its highest level of development in the brilliant age of Pericles, when the greatest tragic poets lived in Athens: Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, as well as the most famous creator of comedies — Aristophanes.
From Greece, dramatic performances passed to the Romans.
But in the field of dramatic poetry, the Romans did not create anything original: the Greeks were fond of the theater, the Romans the circus.
In the Middle Ages, ancient Greek and Roman dramatic performances were forgotten in the Christian world.
But instead of them, religious and moral ones began to be played out, the content of which was events from the biblical history of the Old and New Testaments.
These performances (mysteries) were played out first in churches by the clergy, in church fences, and then in the squares of cities.
Here the mysteries significantly changed their character, since they were no longer intended for the teaching of Christians, but for entertainment.
Dramatic writers appeared.
All the educated peoples of Western Europe have created a theater on a national basis.
The English playwright Shakespeare raised the national drama to a significant height in his homeland)'.
Russian drama did not arise from elements of folk art, that is, rituals and songs, but from imitation of Western European drama.
Simeon Polotsky and Dmitry Rostovsky composed works in the kind of mysteries; such are, for example," The Comedy about the Prodigal Son "of the first and" The Nativity of Christ " of the second.
The false classical direction is transferred to us and strengthened for a long time by Sumarokov, the founder of the Russian theater in St. Petersburg and the author of many tragedies and comedies ("Horev", "Sinav and Truvor", "Dmitry the Impostor").
Knyazhnin, Ozerov, Fonvizin, Kapnist and partly Griboyedov follow the same path.
Finally, Pushkin, under the influence of Shakespeare's work, creates a new tragedy "Boris Godunov", and Gogol — a completely original comedy "The Inspector".
After that, the Russian drama is already developing along its own national path.
The first half of the XX century is extremely important in the history of Western Europe.
During this period, the formation of an industrial civilization is completed and the transition to a post industrial one begins.
At this time, capitalism is turning from monopolistic to state monopolistic.
Profound changes are taking place in it, many of which can be called fateful, since they affected its very existence.
This was confirmed by the unprecedented crisis of 1929-1933 in its depth and scale, which shook Western society to its very foundations.
The second such crisis, capitalism most likely would not have survived.
In order to avoid its repetition, capitalism was subjected to serious reform.
It was conducted very successfully in the USA.
The implemented reforms did not rid capitalism of contradictions and crises, but they significantly softened them, did not allow contradictions to reach extreme antagonism, provided the necessary minimum of social balance.
Thanks to the reforms, the necessary prerequisites for the emergence of a consumer society appeared, which could have developed already in the 40s, but because of the Second World War, it developed in the United States by the end of the 50s, and in other European countries - in the 60s.
In general, state monopoly capitalism managed to find a certain "vivendi mode", in which both the wolves would be fed and the sheep would be safe.
Among the most important events of the first half of the XX century are two world wars that brought tens of millions of dead, incalculable disasters, destruction and loss.
These wars caused a deep crisis of humanism and other educational ideals and values that formed the foundation of Western civilization and culture.
After the Second World War, the world split into two opposing systems capitalism and socialism the confrontation of which complicated the existence of world culture as a whole.
These and other factors determined the conditions in which Western culture developed in the first half of the XX century.
Science still did it most successfully.
During the period under review, the second scientific revolution took place, which began at the end of the XIX century.
Revolutionary changes have taken place in all fields of knowledge.
In physics, the divisibility of the atom was discovered, quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity were created.
The first half of the XX century in the history and culture of Western Europe
The first half of the XX century is extremely important in the history of Western Europe.
During this period, the formation of an industrial civilization is completed and the transition to a post industrial one begins.
At this time, capitalism is turning from monopolistic to state monopolistic.
Profound changes are taking place in it, many of which can be called fateful, since they affected its very existence.
This was confirmed by the unprecedented crisis of 1929-1933 in its depth and scale , which shook Western society to its very foundations.
The second such crisis, capitalism most likely would not have survived.
In order to avoid its repetition, capitalism was subjected to serious reform.
It was conducted very successfully in the USA.
The implemented reforms did not rid capitalism of contradictions and crises, but they significantly softened them, did not allow contradictions to reach extreme antagonism, provided the necessary minimum of social balance.
Thanks to the reforms, the necessary prerequisites for the emergence of a consumer society appeared, which could have developed already in the 40s, but because of the Second World War, it developed in the United States by the end of the 50s, and in other European countries - in the 60s.
In general, state monopoly capitalism managed to find a certain "vivendi mode", in which both the wolves would be fed and the sheep would be safe.
Among the most important events of the first half of the XX century are two world wars that brought tens of millions of dead, incalculable disasters, destruction and loss.
These wars caused a deep crisis of humanism and other educational ideals and values that formed the foundation of Western civilization and culture.
After the Second World War, the world split into two opposing systems capitalism and socialism the confrontation of which complicated the existence of world culture as a whole.
These and other factors determined the conditions in which Western culture developed in the first half of the XX century.
Science still did it most successfully.
During the period under review, the second scientific revolution took place, which began at the end of the XIX century.
Revolutionary changes have taken place in all fields of knowledge.
In physics, the divisibility of the atom was discovered, quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity were created.
The laws of many chemical processes were discovered in chemistry, and quantum chemistry was created.
In biology, the formation of genetics begins.
In cosmology, the concept of a non – stationary – contracting or scattering universe has been developed.
Science owes its outstanding achievements to many scientists, including A. Einstein, M.
Planck, A. Poincare, N. Bohr, M. Born, spouses Irene and Frederic Joliot Curie.
In the field of cognition, with its differentiation into separate sciences, the same processes occur within each of the sciences, which in turn are divided into many disciplines and schools.
All this reinforces the trend towards pluralism.
It is not uncommon for representatives of different schools to hold different views on the same phenomenon within any science.
As for religion, its situation continued to deteriorate.
We can say that the first half of the XX century was the most irreligious in the West.
Unlike religion, philosophy was in a better position.
The main philosophical trends are neo positivism and existentialism.
The first speaks on behalf of science.
He made a significant contribution to the development of problems of formal logic, language and the theory of knowledge.
Its representatives are B. Russell, R.
Carnap, L. Wittgenstein.
Existentialism opposed itself to science and positivist philosophy.
He focused his attention on the problems of man, and, above all, on the problems of freedom.
Its most famous representatives are J.-P.
Sartre and M. Heidegger.
During the time under consideration, the artistic culture developed quite successfully.
This period was the last when France occupied a leading position in world culture, and Paris was considered the recognized cultural capital of the world.
The main direction in the art of France is realism.
In literature, he is represented, first of all, by three great names: A. France, R. Rolland, R. Martin du Gard.
The first created a number of historical and philosophical novels, one of which is "The Gods are Thirsty".
The second world fame was brought by the epic novel "Jean Christophe", which tells about the relationship between the genius of a musician and society.
The third is the author of the multi volume novel "The Thibault Family", which gives a wide panorama of France.
A significant phenomenon in the spiritual life was the work of existentialist writers J.-P.
Sartre and A. Camus.
The main themes of their works are freedom and responsibility, the absurdity of being, loneliness.
Sartre's plays "Flies" and "The Devil" and "The Lord God" became very famous, and Camus's novels "The Stranger", "The Plague", "The Myth of Sisyphus"became very famous.
Along with literature, French sculpture is successfully developing.
During this period, it is represented by sculptors E. Bourdel and A. Maillol.
The works of the first - "Hercules", "Penelope", "Sappho" - are created according to ancient subjects in the classical spirit.
The female statues of the second – "Night", "Pomona", "Mediterranean" - are marked by amazing harmony and balance, filled with captivating femininity.
German literature has achieved significant success.
It owes this, first of all, to the works of T. Mann, L. Feuchtwanger, E. M.
Remark.
The main figure of German literature is T. Mann, who created the fundamental philosophical novels "The Magic Mountain" and "Doctor Faustus", as well as a tetralogy on the biblical plot"Joseph and his brothers".
Feuchtwanger is known primarily for his historical novels "Goya", "The Wisdom of an Eccentric", etc.
In the novels "On the Western Front without changes", "Three Comrades", etc.
Remarque expressed the attitude of the "lost generation".
The work of B. Brecht, who created an intellectual epic theater, deserves special attention.
The world fame was brought to him by the plays "Mother Courage", "The Good Man from Sezuan", etc.
English literature is experiencing a real rise.
Of the many great names, the first should be named J. Galsworthy, S. Maugham, B. Shaw.
The first world fame was brought by the trilogy "The Saga of the Forsytes".
The second is known as the author of the novel "The Burden of Human Passions".
B.
Shaw is a recognized classic of English literature.
He has successfully proved himself in all genres – drama, novel, short story.
American literature remains at a high level.
This is due primarily to such writers as W. Faulkner, J. Steinbeck, E. Hemingway.
In his novels "Noise and Fury", "Light in August", etc.
Faulkner combines a realistic manner of narration with the search for new forms and techniques.
Steinbeck is best known for the novel "The Grapes of Wrath", which became a real epic of the life of the American people.
Hemingway's work is broad and multifaceted.
In the novel "For whom the Bell Tolls", he reflects on war and violence as a tragic curse of humanity.
In the story of the parable "The Old Man and the Sea", the life and fate of a person are considered in the light of tragic stoicism.
European theater in the XX century
In France, the theater has always been of paramount importance.
It is enough to recall such names as Corneille, Moliere, Racine, Beaumarchais, A. de Musset.
It is no accident that they say: "the French play in life and live on the stage."
About the work of the playwright Zh.
Anuya the French say "Anuya's universe".
But despite the truly "universal character" of his work, in which literary critics distinguish "black plays", "pink plays", "brilliant plays", "creaking plays", his best characters are the embodiment of purity and integrity.
Such is Antigone, the heroine of his play "Antigone" (1944).
In the play, Anuj opposes two characters to each other: Kroen, who by the will of fate has just received power, which he accepted without joy, and not only because he felt "the terrible responsibility of power", and Antigone, who refuses to obey him.
She buried her brother's body, despite the king's prohibitions.
Anuya's refusal is the highest engine of dramatic action.
Antigone refuses to Obey, refuses pity, refuses love, refuses life itself.
The influence of existentialism is felt in the play: this world is tragic in its absurdity, the only greatness is a conscious escape from it.
The work written during the war had a pronounced anti fascist orientation.
Another remarkable French playwright of the XX century - J. Girodou (1882 - 1944) a diplomat, Minister of Information at the beginning of the war in 1939, he was a prolific novelist, critic, a subtle brilliant essayist, but after meeting the great French actor Jouvet completely devoted himself to the theater.
His plays are very diverse: modern and ancient, tragic and fantastic, terrible and causing a smile.
The famous "Elektra" and "There will be no Trojan War" are written on ancient subjects.
Creativity of P. Valery.
The outstanding poet and thinker P. Valery (1871-1945) was a theorist of the French theater in the period between the two wars.
He wrote about two types of theater: the one that goes back to the Temple and the theater of the Guignol type.
He wrote about two types of theater: the one that goes back to the Temple and the theater of the Guignol type.
The second type is a "solemn mystery" that can "convey the heat and freshness of the moment, preserving the 'magic of becoming'".
Such a theater already existed in France, so Valery tried to create a theater similar to the liturgy.
In collaboration with the composer Honegger, he wrote the ballet "Amphion", which premiered at the Paris Opera on June 23, 1931.The ballet was staged by Ida Rubinstein (1885-1960) and, according to Valery himself, was "a resurrection of liturgical convention".
Valery called such a convention a convention of the highest order, noting that in the theater of the Temple everything is moved by majestic laws.
In the play "Soul and Dance", Valerie reveals her understanding of ballet through the lips of the characters, noting that its strength lies in the fact that the dance performed by a dancer - ballerina penetrates into the thick of our thoughts, gradually awakens them one by one, calls them out of the darkness of our souls to the light in the best order possible.
"God created everything out of nothing, but this nothing is visible from everywhere," wrote Valery in "Bad Thoughts".
Dramaturgy of J.-P.
Sartre and A. Camus.
The playwrights were the philosophers J.-P.
Sartre and A. Camus, whose existentialist views were also manifested in dramatic creativity.
In the plays "Flies", "The Dead without burial", "Dirty Hands", "The Devil and the Good God" and others, Sartre presents a new tragedy, the tragedy of a person "immersed in freedom".
Albert Camus (Nobel Prize winner, 1957), who founded the "Theater of Labor" and played himself in the theater troupe "Radio Algeria" before the Second World War, wrote half of his works for the stage; performances of " Misunderstanding "in 1945 and" Caligula " in 1944 made him famous.
Camus saw no cure for the absurdity and suffering of the world.
In his opinion, there is only a "modest wisdom" that needs to be gradually acquired and which consists in " loving a limited and magnificent world... to work, to cultivate, like Candide, your garden day after day, to refuse to kill, so as not to be an accomplice to an absurd fate, to look, on the contrary, for means to reduce world suffering, to believe that the rise of universal well being cannot be achieved at the cost of the life of one child."
The plays of B. Brecht.
After the Second World War, theatrical experiments in Europe were continued by the German playwright B. Brecht (1898-1956), who proposed the concept of epic theater.
According to this concept, the performance should not affect the feelings, but the mind of the viewer and inspire him with an active and critical attitude to what is happening on the stage.
It should be journalistic and socially oriented.
His plays "The Threepenny Opera" (a dramatization of The Beggars 'Opera by J. Gay, 1728), "The Life of Galmey" (1939), "The Career of Arthur Wee" (1941)," Mother Courage "(1971)," The Caucasian Chalk Circle " (1949) and others are examples of the grotesque, anti - war orientation of criticism of modern society.
"New Theater".
Since 1950, the so called "New Theater" has appeared in France, initially ignored by the public.
This is the theater of the "drama of the absurd", created by S. Beckett, E. Ionesco, A. Adamov, who lived in Paris and wrote in French.
On the one hand, it was an attempt to update the structure and language of the theater, and on the other ,the "New Theater" was a reflection of the horror caused by the atrocities of war and the fear of atomic destruction.
Beckett's play "Waiting for Godot", staged in 1952, is the most famous play of the theater of the absurd, representing a life devoid of meaning.
In most of Ionesco's plays, the idea of the uselessness of language as a means of communication is carried out.
The above, in our opinion, gives grounds to assert that it is wrong to talk about any crisis, at least in relation to the theater of the XX century.
True, one cannot discount one phenomenon of the XX century, which can be considered a manifestation of the crisis, but not of culture.
The growth of well being due to the scientific and technological revolution of the overwhelming majority of the European population, the establishment of democratic trends in life led to the actual power in this life of the uncreative majority, unable to live with the ideas and ideals of genuine culture, unable to rise above the world of everyday life, and this anti elitism of the majority of the population, not focused on creativity, is destructive for culture.
The development of show business has been a manifestation of this trend since the 60s of the XX century throughout Europe, including in France.
Mass circulations of records, cassettes of "disc", "folk", "rock" music, thundering in transistor headphones from morning to evening, accompany young men and girls everywhere.
(Doctors note an increase in the disorder of the hearing aid for this reason in young people.)
However, along with the spread of show business and other negative phenomena in the spiritual life of Europe in the XX century, a culture that elevates a person continues to exist and develop, which is the criterion of its authenticity, regardless of the genre.
The search for new theatrical forms.
Over the past two decades, the theatrical life of France, as well as Europe as a whole, has become more diverse.
There are currently more than 50 theaters in Paris alone, where the audience can find productions for every taste:
from the eternal creations of the classics Shakespeare, Corneille, Racine, Chekhov to "Comedy Francaise "and".
Odeon "to the modern playwrights Beckett and Ionesco in avant garde theaters and witty comedies in "boulevard theaters".
Every year in Avignon, Orange, Nimes and other cities of France, theater festivals are held in ancient Roman arenas or in medieval castles, attracting thousands of spectators from many countries.
Such spectacular events are practiced in Italy: on the ruins of the Forum, the Colosseum, the Baths of Caracalla, performances that amaze with their grandiosity, productions of classical Italian operas on ancient subjects are held.
Thus, the production of Verdi's opera "Lida" in the Baths of Caracalla creates an exciting feeling of the viewer's presence in the thick of the events taking place.
All this is a search for new theatrical forms available to the mass of viewers.
An example of such a combination of mass character and classics are the grandiose productions of R. Ossein at the arena of the Paris Palace of Sports of the performances "Notre Dame de Paris", "Danton and Robespierre", "The Man from Nazareth", "The Battleship Potemkin".
Treasure Carrer, in collaboration with the famous English director Peter Brook, staged the ancient Indian epic "Mahabharata" at the Paris theater "Bouf du Nord".
The scale of this performance is indicated by the fact that it ran either for three evenings, or for twelve hours in a row from 12 o'clock in the afternoon to 12 o'clock at night.
The audience, who came from many European countries, stocked up with thermos flasks with coffee and sandwiches and "heroically sat out to the end," as the Paris newspapers wrote in 1986, when this performance was staged.
Phenomena in drama
Similar phenomena in drama are associated with the movement of free theaters.
The dramaturgy of Beck, Hauptman, the cycle of "unpleasant plays" of Shaw expressed a sharply critical attitude to the bourgeois world.
The central figure of theatrical life at the turn of the XIX— XX centuries was Henrik Ibsen.
In the work of the great Norwegian playwright, the anti bourgeois aspirations of progressive drama were expressed with special force.
In Ibsen's plays, an acutely critical image of the mores of bourgeois society is given from the standpoint of a democratic and realist artist, the principles of critical realism are most consistently and deeply embodied.
Ibsen created a type of socio psychological drama.
Along with the growth of progressive trends in the development of European theater in the last decades of the XIX century.
the signs of a deep ideological and creative crisis of theatrical culture are becoming more and more evident.
If earlier the features of the impending crisis were manifested in the separation of the theater from great literature, in the naturalistic rebirth of critical realism, then at the end of the century the theater acquires a different property — it becomes an expression of the crisis of the entire spiritual culture of the bourgeois world.
The diverse manifestations of this crisis in the field of aesthetic thought and in various types of art are expressed in decadence and symbolism.
These trends had various and even contradictory ideological and creative tendencies, from the aggressive attacks of the ideologists of reaction, who openly broke with the traditions of nationality, humanism and vital truth (decadence) " to the phenomena testifying to the pessimism and confusion of those layers of the intelligentsia who, while not accepting bourgeois reality, at the same time did not see a way out of it (symbolism).
The art of decadence, devoid of any interest in the civil goals of creativity and having a philosophical basis for Nietzsche's teaching about a "superman" who is not subject to any moral norms, showed an increased interest in pathological states of the psyche, in a painful thirst for violence, in the aestheticization of eroticism, cruelty and immoralism.
The most significant in this respect was the work of the Italian playwright decadent G. D'Annunzio.
The art of symbolism was imbued with a fear of life, of unknown forces hostile to man.
Loneliness, doom, the desire to escape into the world of subjective experiences or into the realm of" pure art", opposed to rough life — these are the main ideological motives of symbolism.
Declaring the world unknowable, symbolist art logically came to the denial of realism.
Hence, the doctrine of the symbol as a conditional form of denoting the essence of the world hidden from man and the inner hidden life of man himself.
The founder of the symbolist drama was the Belgian playwright Maeterlinck.
In his work, the criticism of bourgeois society was conducted from the standpoint of an abstract humanistic ideal, and the search for new means of artistic expression sometimes mixed the poetics of symbolism with forms of decadent aestheticization.
In his work, the criticism of bourgeois society was conducted from the standpoint of an abstract humanistic ideal, and the search for new means of artistic expression sometimes mixed the poetics of symbolism with forms of decadent aestheticization.
But in his best works, Maeterlinck achieved not only great poetic power, but also maintained a humanistic faith in life.
Despite the contradictory nature of symbolism, many theater figures, whose work is marked by its seal, perceived this trend as a revolt against the modern bourgeois theater, frozen in routine forms.
For a number of playwrights and directors (Maeterlinck, Hauptmann, Antoine, Lunier Poe, Paul Faure, Reinhardt and others), the struggle against the bourgeois theater was inseparable from the search for new content, new expressive means, forms.
Conclusions
The first half of the XX century is extremely important in the history of Western Europe.
During this period, the formation of an industrial civilization is completed and the transition to a post industrial one begins.
At this time, capitalism is turning from monopolistic to state monopolistic.
Profound changes are taking place in it, many of which can be called fateful, since they affected its very existence.
In France, the theater has always been of paramount importance.
It is enough to recall such names as Corneille, Moliere, Racine, Beaumarchais, A. de Musset.
It is no accident that they say: "the French play in life and live on the stage."
The outstanding poet and thinker P. Valery (1871-1945) was a theorist of the French theater in the period between the two wars.
He wrote about two types of theater: the one that goes back to the Temple and the theater of the Guignol type.
The second type is a "solemn mystery" that can "convey the heat and freshness of the moment, preserving the "magic of becoming".
Such a theater already existed in France, so Valery tried to create a theater similar to the liturgy.
Dramaturgy of J.-P.
Sartre and A. Camus.
The playwrights were the philosophers J.-P.
Sartre and A. Camus, whose existentialist views were also manifested in dramatic creativity.
In the plays "Flies", "The Dead without burial", "Dirty Hands", "The Devil and the Good God" and others, Sartre presents a new tragedy, the tragedy of a person "immersed in freedom".
Since 1950, the so called "New Theater" has appeared in France, initially ignored by the public.
This is the theater of the "drama of the absurd", created by S. Beckett, E. Ionesco, A. Adamov, who lived in Paris and wrote in French.
On the one hand, it was an attempt to update the structure and language of the theater, and on the other ,the "New Theater" was a reflection of the horror caused by the atrocities of war and the fear of atomic destruction.
Beckett's play "Waiting for Godot", staged in 1952, is the most famous play of the theater of the absurd, representing a life devoid of meaning.
In most of Ionesco's plays, the idea of the uselessness of language as a means of communication is carried out.
All this is a search for new theatrical forms available to the mass of viewers.
An example of such a combination of mass character and classics are the grandiose productions of R. Ossein at the arena of the Paris Palace of Sports of the performances "Notre Dame de Paris", "Danton and Robespierre", "The Man from Nazareth", "The Battleship Potemkin".
Similar phenomena in drama are associated with the movement of free theaters.
The dramaturgy of Beck, Hauptman, the cycle of "unpleasant plays" of Shaw expressed a sharply critical attitude to the bourgeois world.
At the end of the XIX and at the beginning of the XX century, and especially in the pre October decade, the theme of waiting for great changes that should sweep away the old , unfair social structure passes through all Russian art, and in particular music and theater.
Not all composers realized the inevitability, the necessity of the revolution and sympathized with it, but everyone or almost everyone felt the pre storm tension.
Most of the musicians did not take a direct part in the revolutionary events, and therefore the ties between them were rather weak.
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