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August 2011
Note to the Special forces: ORIENTATION ON THE TERRAIN
In a combat situation, it is necessary to act on the most diverse terrain — in the forest, in the mountains, on swampy, flat terrain, etc .When performing various combat tasks, a soldier often needs to determine the distance for shooting, the direction of movement, accurately indicate the position of the target or his location.
To successfully complete these tasks, all warriors must know the basics of topography.
Military topography considers such issues as methods of studying the terrain, orientation on the terrain, drawing up combat graphic documents, including the simplest drawings, as well as other issues related to the assessment and use of the terrain in solving various combat tasks.
Orientation on the terrain is the ability to determine the location relative to the sides of the horizon (north, south, east, west), surrounding local objects and landforms, the location of your troops and enemy troops, the ability to find the right direction of movement and maintain this direction on the way.
You can navigate the terrain in various ways: by map, by compass, by celestial bodies, by clock, by local objects, by azimuth.
Landmarks are clearly visible objects (a factory chimney, a church bell tower, a separate tree, a road intersection) and irregularities of the earth's surface (mountains, hills, etc.) that facilitate orientation and memorization of the terrain.
Landmarks are used not only to determine your location (where you are), find the way, but also for targeting.
The study and memorization of the terrain should always begin with the choice of three or four most noticeable landmarks around you from a distance.
It is necessary to remember their appearance and mutual location well.
In the future, landmarks should be used as beacons, by which, when necessary, they determine and check their location or find a way to move in the right direction
To indicate your position relative to known landmarks, you need to name this place and tell the commander in which direction and at what distance from them you are.
For example: "I am on the edge of the Ivanovo forest: right in front of me, 600 meters away, the church of the village of Ivanovka, to my right, 150 meters away, the stone bridge over the Bystryanka River."
Often, when making a movement in a given direction, they use landmarks.
To do this, on the way of movement, pre select on the map or map out such landmarks directly on the ground, with the help of which it would be possible to reach a given point (place).
For target designation, the landmarks that are given to the commanders in the observation lane are used.
At the same time, landmarks are always numbered from right to left and along the boundaries from themselves towards the enemy.
To indicate the position of the target, you need to call the number of the nearest landmark to it and report where the target is relative to it.
For example, "Landmark 2 is a barn, two fingers to the right, a machine gun is closer than 100 meters".
Determining the sides of the horizon
Orientation to the cardinal directions is usually performed using a compass.
The compass consists of a round box, inside which a magnetic needle rotates freely on a steel needle, the blue end of which always shows the direction to the north.
There are divisions on the inner ring of the box, with the help of which the angles between the direction of the northern (blue) end of the compass needle and the directions to the observed objects are measured.
These angles are measured in degrees.
The full circle is 360 degrees.
One division of the compass is equal to 3 degrees.
The compass box has a rotating glass lid equipped with a device for sighting (pointing), a slot and a front sight.
The compass needle is fixed by a brake in the form of a lever, which keeps it from wearing out at a time when the compass is not working.
The compass is adapted for night work.
The northern end of its arrows, the main divisions, as well as special pointers at the slot and the front sight are covered with a special luminous paint so that they are visible in the dark.
To determine the sides of the horizon by the compass, you need to hold it in your hand horizontally in front of you, releasing the arrow brake.
When the arrow stops oscillating, its blue end will show the direction to the north, and the light end will show the direction to the south.
Then you need to rotate the compass body so that the northern end of the arrow coincides with the zero division of the scale.
To the right of the north — south line will be east, and to the left west.
In order not to repeat this action at the same point of standing, it is necessary to notice sharply distinguished local objects in the directions to the sides of the horizon, which should be used in the future when determining the sides of the horizon at this point of standing.
The magnetic needle of the compass is very sensitive to iron, iron ore and steel.
Therefore, in order for the compass readings to be correct, when orienting, it should be located as far as possible from metal objects, railways and industrial enterprises, and personal metal and steel things should be postponed while working with the compass.
According to the countries of the world, it is easy to determine and indicate the directions, as well as the relative location of any objects on the ground.
For example: "I am at a road intersection 1 kilometer north of the village of Ivanovka.
North east of me in 1.5 kilometers the height is Long.
To the northwest, 800 meters away, there is a withered tree."
During the day, in the absence of a compass, you can approximately determine the sides of the horizon by the sun.
Orientation by the heavenly bodies.
The determination of the sides of the horizon by the heavenly bodies is approximate; it is resorted to when there is no compass and map.
The sun is in the east around 7 o'clock in the morning, while the direction of the shadow points to the west, at noon, i.e. at 13 o'clock, the sun is in the south.
At noon, the shadows from vertically standing objects, such as trees, are the shortest, and the direction of the shadows always points to the north.
By 19 o'clock, the sun will move to the west, the shadows at this time will be directed to the east.
On sunny days, you can determine the countries of the world by the sun and the clock.
If there is a clock, you can determine the sides of the horizon by the sun at any time of the day.
To do this, you need to hold the watch horizontally on the palm of your hand, turn it so that the hour hand is directed at the sun.
The angle in the center of the dial, formed by the hour hand and the direction to the number "1" (on the dial), must be divided in half.
The line dividing this angle in half corresponds to the directions to the north and to the south and will show the direction to the south.
At the same time, before noon, it is necessary to divide the arc (angle) on the dial, which the hour hand should pass before 13 o'clock, and after noon — which it passed after 13 o'clock.
The minute hand is not taken into account when determining the countries of the world.
Knowing the direction to the south, it is easy to determine the direction to all other sides of the horizon.
At night, in the absence of a compass, the countries of the world can be determined by the Polar Star, which is always located in the north direction.
To find the North Star, you must first find the constellation Ursa Major; it has the form of a bucket made up of seven well visible bright stars.
To do this, they mentally postpone five segments equal to the distance between the two extreme stars of the Big Dipper, in the direction of another constellation — the Little Dipper.
At the end of this line is a bright star — this will be the North Star.
For night traffic, even after dark, they choose such landmarks that could be noticeable even in the dark.
The best of these landmarks will be those that are located on elevated places and are visible against the sky when approaching them.
Landmarks become even more noticeable if you look at them from below.
At night, it is most reliable to maintain the direction along linear landmarks — rivers, roads, edges, forests, ravines, ravines, etc.
If there are no or lack of landmarks along the route, artificial landmarks are created in advance for movement day and night: piles of stones, holes on tree trunks, creases of branches, etc .
In summer, you can mark the path of movement with slaked lime and chalk, and in winter — with earth, sand and ash.
These artificial landmarks are used both for the return journey and for driving to a designated point in an unfamiliar or unfamiliar area.
In local subjects.
Determining the sides of the horizon by the signs of local objects gives only approximate results.
Therefore, it is recommended to use this method only in cases when it is impossible to use another method.
You can roughly judge the directions to the sides of the horizon by the following signs.
The bark on free standing trees on the north side is usually rougher and more rough, sometimes covered with moss.
The branches of the trees are thicker and longer on the south side.
In addition, large stones, rocks, stone walls, old wooden roofs on the north side are usually overgrown with moss.
On the stumps of cut trees, the rings of annual growth are more densely located on the northern side and less often on the southern side.
In winter, the snow near the trunks of trees and other objects begins to melt faster from the south side.
In spring, the snow melts faster on the slopes of ravines and deep ravines facing south.
In the forest, the grass is usually thicker on the northern edges of glades and clearings than on the southern ones.
On coniferous trees, resin accumulates more abundantly from the southern side.
In Orthodox churches, the altars are facing east, and the crosses with the ends of the crossbeams are facing north and south.
The entrances of the mosques face south.
The altars of the churches face west.
Orientation on the map
The map, as you know, serves as a guide when driving through unfamiliar terrain.
A preliminary study of the area is carried out on the map.
The area on the map is represented by established conventional signs.
The most common local objects and their conventional signs on the maps are shown in Figures 2 and 3.
Maps are multicolored, on which it is customary to designate: water blue, forests green, highways red, improved dirt roads orange, terrain, i.e. terrain irregularities brown, other local objects black.
The map shows the area in a reduced form.
The degree of reduction of all lines on the map compared to their actual size on the ground is called the map scale.
The distances on the map are measured using a linear scale, which is located at the bottom of the map, near its southern border.
The linear scale is represented as a line divided by dashes into equal parts centimeters, which are signed with numbers.
The numbers show how many meters (kilometers) of the area corresponds to the specified number of centimeters of the map.
To determine the distance between two points on the map, measure the distance between them on the map with a compass or a piece of paper, then apply this segment to a linear scale and determine the distance.
Orientation on the terrain on the map is the most difficult, but also the most accurate way.
To navigate in this way, using a map on the ground, you must first orient the map, i.e., placing it in a horizontal plane, give it such a position that the directions to local objects depicted on the map coincide with the directions to the same objects on the ground.
The map is guided by a compass or by lines on the terrain.
In this position, the upper line of the map frame will always face north.
This is called map orientation.
The orientation of the map can be performed: with the help of a compass; by a linear reference point; by celestial bodies.
When orienting the map by compass, first use a magnetic arrow to determine the direction to the north, then put the compass on the map and turn the upper side of the map frame in this direction so that the north south line coincides with the side frame of the map.
Then, holding the map in a horizontal position, turn it until the northern end of the magnetic arrow coincides with the letter "C" or with a division of 0° along the compass limb (more precisely, with a division corresponding to the magnitude of the magnetic declination; the magnitude of the magnetic declination is always indicated on the diagram placed under the southern frame of the map).
In this position, the map will be oriented to the cardinal directions.
To orient the map according to a linear landmark (road, power line, etc.), it is convenient to use straight local objects, such as roads.
Standing on the road, they find it on the map and then turn the map so that the directions of the road on the map and the roads on the terrain coincide, and the objects located on the right and left sides of the road are on the same sides and on the map.
To do this, apply a ruler or pencil to the conditional landmark sign and combine the direction of the landmark on the map and on the ground.
In this case, the map will be oriented, i.e. its upper edge will face north.
Then they check whether all local objects and landforms located on the terrain to the right and left of the landmark have the same location on the map.
If this condition is met, it means that the map is oriented correctly.
When orienting the map by the celestial bodies, the direction to the north (where the upper side of the map frame should be directed) at night is determined by the Polar star Alpha.
The Alpha star is found in the sky with the help of the two extreme stars of the "bucket" of the constellation Ursa Major.
To do this, you need to mentally connect these stars with a straight line and continue it for about five times the distance, to the same bright star.
This will be the Alpha star of the constellation Ursa Minor, which also has the shape of a bucket.
During the daytime, the direction to the south can be determined by the sun (where the lower side of the map frame should be directed).
A wristwatch is used for this purpose.
In a horizontal position, they are installed so that the hour hand is directed at the sun.
The angle between the hour hand and the direction of the digit " 1 "in winter time and the digit" 2 " in summer time on the watch face is divided in half by a straight line that indicates the direction to the south.
After the map is oriented, you need to find your point of location on the map and on the terrain.
The position of the point of its location on the map can be determined in the following main ways: by the nearest landmarks to the eye; by measuring the distance; by the alignment and linear landmark; by the direction to the landmark and the distance to it.
To do this, you need to find out which of the nearby local items is available on the map.
The easiest way to determine your location on the map is when you are on the ground next to a landmark depicted on the map (a road intersection, a bridge, a mill, a separate building, etc.) or a characteristic feature of a linear landmark.
For example, when you are on the highway at a railway crossing.
You need to find an image of a railway and a highway on the map.
The intersection of the axes of conventional highway and railway signs will indicate the location.
In this case, the location of the conditional landmark sign on the map will coincide with the location point.
Then, having determined by measuring or measuring your distance and position relative to the selected object on the ground, put the point of your location on the map.
If there are no such objects nearby, the location point is determined by the alignment of objects or by serifing.
By measuring the distance, their location is determined when moving along a linear landmark or along it (along a road, a clearing, along a communication line, etc.), as well as when moving along an azimuth.
At the same time, the speedometer reading is recorded at the starting point or the steps (pairs of steps) are counted.
To determine your location, you need to set aside the distance traveled from the starting point to the stop point on the map along a linear landmark.
A target is a straight line passing through a standing point and two other characteristic points of the terrain (landmarks).
When you are on a linear landmark, for example, on a road and in a alignment with two local objects, it is enough to draw a straight line on the map through the conventional signs of local objects forming the alignment to the intersection with the road.
The point of intersection of the target line with the road is the location point.
If the location can be easily determined on the map (for example, a road intersection) and if another point (for example, a mill) is visible on the terrain, which is also depicted on the map, then the map is oriented in the direction from the first point to the second.
This is how it is done.
You need to put a ruler (or pencil) on the map along the line connecting the standing point and the selected landmark.
Then, without moving the ruler, look along it, and turn yourself with the map until the selected landmark is on the line of continuation of the edge of the ruler.
If there is no landmark at the point of standing, then it can be determined by the nearest local objects.
To do this, you need to orient the map and find an image of two or three nearby local objects on it.
Then determine your location on the ground relative to these objects by eye and mark the point of location on the map by eye.
Movement on the map
When driving on roads with the help of a map, it is necessary to first study the route of movement, the existing landmarks on the way and on the sides, determine and remember the general direction of the path relative to the sides of the horizon, the location of your troops and enemy troops, paying special attention to and landmarks such as towns, crossroads, forest, bridges, etc.
Then choose the main landmarks along the route (towns, crossroads and the fork in the road, bridges, a characteristic of the terrain), necessary to control the correctness of the movement, raise them on the map (make it more visible: draw a bigger, round sign with a red circle or highlight it in any other way), measure and remember (write down) the distance between them, to know in advance where and when each of the benchmarks to meet.
On the way, if it is necessary to check the correctness of the movement, they compare the map with the terrain, determining their location on it.
Especially carefully check on the map the correctness of movement along the surrounding landmarks when leaving settlements, at intersections and forks of roads.
Entering a forest or a piece of terrain that is poor in landmarks, they notice the time by the clock and then, knowing the speed of their movement, check their location on the map, determining the distance traveled from the landmarks by the time of movement.
When driving off road, the planned route is previously studied on the map, it is clarified so that each turn of the path is clearly marked on the map by some kind of landmark.
At the same time, it is useful to draw the entire route on the map.
In the future, moving in a given direction from one landmark to another, use the map in the same way as when driving on roads, comparing it with the terrain, for this, the necessary part of it should always be kept open and more often compared with the terrain.
Movement by azimuth
When driving on unfamiliar terrain off the roads, in the forest, at night, in fog, when there are no landmarks or they are not visible, the desired direction of movement is maintained by magnetic azimuths determined using a compass.
To do this, it is necessary to determine in advance the magnetic azimuths of the directions of movement from one turn of the path to another, as well as the distances that you need to go in each of these directions to reach the intended point.
These data are usually prepared in advance on the map and are drawn up in the form of a route diagram.
All landmarks and the route of movement are applied to the scheme, the magnetic azimuth and distance are signed along each section of it.
The magnetic azimuth is the angle formed by the direction of the northern end of the magnetic needle of the compass and the direction to the local object from the point of its standing.
Magnetic azimuths are measured clockwise in degrees; they can have a value from 0 to 360°.
The measurement is carried out from the northern end of the magnetic arrow through the points "B", "Y", " Z " to the specified direction to the local object.
To move along the azimuth using the compass in the desired direction, you must:
— at the starting point from which the azimuth of the direction is set, it is necessary to stand facing the object (landmark) on which the azimuth is determined, while you need to hold the compass horizontally in your hand;
- turn the compass cover until the front sight pointer is against the reference point equal to the specified magnetic azimuth, then lower the brake of the magnetic arrow;
- release the brake of the magnetic needle and turn together with the compass, holding it with the slot to yourself, until the arrow is set with its northern end against the division " 0°" on the compass limb;
- after letting the arrow calm down, turn the compass cover so that the slot — front sight line is directed at the object (landmark) and notice some landmark (bush, tree, hillock, etc.) on the continuation of this line on the terrain; the direction to it will be the one you need to move;
- read the countdown on the compass ring against the front sight pointer.
This count will be the magnetic azimuth of the direction to the selected landmark.
To move along a given azimuth, you need to know the azimuth of the direction of the path and the distance that you need to travel in order to reach the specified point or landmark.
This data is usually prepared in advance by the commander.
The distances are specified in pairs of steps.
To maintain the chosen direction on the way, at the beginning of the movement at the starting point on the ground, the compass determines the direction according to the specified azimuth.
At the same time, it is necessary, strictly observing the intermediate landmarks planned on the ground (a bush, a stone, a hillock, etc.), to start moving towards them, keeping track of pairs of steps.
Having reached the planned intermediate landmark, determine the direction again (according to the same azimuth), mark the next intermediate landmark on it, go to it.
This is how they move from one landmark to another.
Having found the next landmark, it is necessary to move in the same order towards the next one.
Thus, from one landmark to another, the entire path is made until the intended destination is reached.
If the movement is supposed to be made along a polyline, then the commander indicates in the task the distances and magnetic azimuths for each of the straight sections of the path.
It also indicates the landmarks at the beginning and end of each section.
All these data are schematically recorded on paper and guided by them on the way.
For each of the straight sections, move as indicated above.
In this case, if the specified distance along the azimuth is passed, and the landmark specified in the task does not appear at the turning point, you need to look for it near this point and, having found the landmark, continue moving further from it.
If there is an obstacle on the way that needs to be bypassed, especially often this happens when bypassing impassable places (swamp, quagmire), then they do this: they notice some landmark on the opposite side of the obstacle in the direction of movement and determine the distance to it by eye.
Having bypassed the obstacle, they approach this landmark, add the width of the obstacle to the distance traveled earlier and, having determined the direction of movement by the compass, continue the path.
Preparation of combat graphic documents
The simplest graphic documents compiled by the commanders of guns and intelligence departments are cards and diagrams (for example, a map of topogeodetic binding, a diagram of landmarks, a diagram of the battery's battle order, a diagram of targets, a diagram of a report).
These documents are compiled directly on the ground by eye.
The following requirements are imposed on combat graphic documents: reliability of information and timely preparation of the document, simplicity and clarity of the image.
Only verified data should be shown on them; everything that raises doubts should be specified.
Each document must be submitted exactly by the specified deadline; submitted late, it loses its significance.
Only the information that is necessary for solving this problem should be applied to the diagrams and cards.
Documents should be drawn up with generally accepted topographic and tactical conventional signs.
The general rules for drawing up cards and diagrams are as follows:
- they are compiled on separate sheets of paper or in a notebook;
— all the work is done with a simple pencil by hand;
— in cases where this is possible, information about the enemy is shown in blue, about their troops — in red, and about artillery in black;
— the top of the document (form) must always be facing the enemy; in addition, to orient the drawing relative to the sides of the horizon, a north — south arrow is drawn on it;
- the measured distances necessary for drawing landmarks, local objects and goals are laid on the drawing by eye, while maintaining, if possible, their actual ratio to each other in length;
- the necessary conventional signs are drawn on diagrams and cards about one and a half to two times larger than on the map, and in a simplified form;
- landmarks on the map of landmarks are drawn in perspective, i.e. as they are visible on the ground;
- the necessary additional information (about the enemy, terrain, etc.), which cannot be depicted graphically, is written in the margins of the drawing; such brief explanations are called a legend.
Alexander Khrolenko
Photo by the author and Konstantin Khrichenko
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