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Ancient Greece
Kiji Jug
Ancient Greece is the common name of the territory of the ancient Greek states in the south of the Balkan Peninsula, the islands of the Aegean Sea, the western coastline of Asia Minor.
As part of the study of Ancient Greece, the history of Greek colonies in the eastern and western Mediterranean is also considered: in the south of Italy, on the northern coast of Africa, on the shores of the Black and Azov Seas.
Chronologically, the history of Ancient Greece begins with prehistoric times and ends with the 4th century AD — the time of the formation of the Byzantine Empire.
Painting of the Kiji jug
Traditionally, the mainland of Greece is divided into three regions: Northern Greece, Middle Greece, and the Peloponnese (Southern Greece).
Northern Greece was divided by the Pindus mountain range into western (Epirus) and eastern (Thessaly) parts.
Middle Greece was separated from Northern Greece by the mountains Timfrest and Eta.
The following regions were located on the territory of Central Greece from west to east: Acarnania, Aetolia, Phocis, Boeotia, Megarida, Attica.
The southern Peloponnese Peninsula was connected to Central Greece by a narrow (up to 6 km) The Isthmus of Corinth.
In the center of the Peloponnese was Arcadia, which bordered on the west with Elida, on the southwest with Messenia, on the southeast with Laconica, on the north with Achaia, on the east with Argolis.
In the extreme north east of the Peloponnese, Corinthia was located.
Macedonia, which was adjacent to Northern Greece from the north, was considered a separate country, although it was inhabited by Macedonian tribes related to the Greeks.
Insular Greece has several hundred islands, the largest of them are Crete, Euboea, Rhodes.
Greece is a mountainous country with a rugged coastline and numerous bays.
Mountain ranges divide Greece into many narrow and isolated river valleys with access to the sea.
In the ancient Greek period, three quarters of the country's territory was pastures, only one eighth was occupied by arable land.
Already in ancient times, deposits of iron (Laconic), silver (Attica), copper (Euboea), gold (Thessaly), lead (Keos), white marble (Attica, Paros) were actively exploited.
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Stone Age and Bronze Age
The main types of Greek vases
The oldest human sites on the territory of Greece belong to the Middle Paleolithic period (100-40 thousand years ago).
The skull of a Neanderthal man found on the Halkidiki peninsula dates back to this time.
During the Neolithic period (the middle of the seventh millennium BC — about 2800 BC), agriculture and cattle breeding were mastered, the population of the southern Balkans switched to a sedentary lifestyle, the tribal system fully developed.
In Northern Greece, the cultures of Sesklo, Dimini, Larissa were identified, the latter is characterized by fortified settlements on the hills; the appearance of a megaron — a rectangular room with a narrow facade and wooden columns, with a hearth in the center; black and gray ceramics along with polychrome ceramics with drawings in two colors, usually black and red.
In the 5th 4th millennia BC, local variants of the Neolithic culture of mainland Greece, the Aegean islands and Crete were formed.
In the Neolithic period, Greece's connections with the northern part of the Balkan Peninsula, the coast of Asia Minor and Syria were noted.
The Bronze Age in the history of Ancient Greece covers the period from the 28th to the 12th centuries BC.
The culture of the Bronze Age is conventionally called the Cretan Mycenaean culture (Aegean culture).
Chronologically, they are divided into the early, middle, and late periods of the Creto Mycenaean culture.
There are also local variants: the culture of Crete was called the Minoan culture, mainland Greece the Helladic culture, the islands of the Aegean Sea — the Cycladic culture.
The period of the early Bronze Age (28-21 centuries BC) is marked by the advanced development of the islands of the Aegean Sea.
By the middle of the third millennium BC, mining of silver, lead, copper was developed on Syros, Paros, Melos, Kitnos, Amorgos; production of metal utensils, weapons, tools, jewelry, ritual things; progress in pottery and construction was noted.
In the second half of the third millennium BC, maritime relations covered the entire coast of the Aegean Sea, the first cities appeared: Poliochni on the island of Lemnos, Ayios Kozmas in Attica.
A fortified settlement with a palace ("House of Tiles") on a hilltop in Lerna in Argolis shows that already at that time a tribal nobility was revealed on the coast of Southern Greece, but in the rest of mainland Greece the tribal system remained in full force.
Between 2200-2000, Greece experienced a wave of migrations, the newcomers destroyed a number of thriving centers on the islands and the mainland.
The ethnic composition of the Greek population in the third millennium BC was heterogeneous.
The autochthonous tribes of the Pelasgians and Lelegs were pushed back and assimilated by proto Greek tribes who came from the north, among which the Achaeans and Ionians stood out.
The period of the Middle Bronze Age (20-17 centuries BC) is marked by the leading role of Crete, where the cities of the state of Knos, Festus, Ayia Triada, Mallia arose.
In the 23-17 centuries BC, Cretan writing evolved from pictographic to hieroglyphic.
Around the 18th century BC, the syllabic letter A was developed.
The Cretans had a large fleet, maintained trade and diplomatic ties with Egypt and the states of Near Asia.
Mainland Greece in the 20th and 17th centuries BC developed relatively slowly, the tribal community maintained its stability.
Since the 17th century, the formation of the city states of Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos began.
The burials of royal families discovered in Mycenae in large well shaped (mine) graves contained a large number of precious things (weapons, jewelry, gold masks), which indicates the strengthening of the power of the Achaean dynasties (rulers) from the mid 17th late 16th century BC.
During the Late Bronze Age (16-12 centuries BC), the rise of the Cretan states continued.
During the Novodvorets period (1700-1450 BC), the palaces of Knos and Festus were rebuilt and expanded, and the palace in Kato Zakro was re erected.
The maritime rule (thalassocracy) of the Cretans was preserved in the memory of the Greeks many centuries later.
Around 1470 BC, a tectonic catastrophe on the island of Fera led to a devastating earthquake in Crete, which caused the desolation of the island.
Although the palace was restored in Knossos, the state could not regain its power and lasted until about 1380 BC.
The 16th 13th centuries BC were the time of the rise of mainland Greece, progress in agriculture and crafts led to the growth of the population.
The epic heritage of the Achaeans has preserved the traditions of civil strife and defensive alliances of the Achaean dynasties.
The Mycenaean culture of the Achaeans received a special development.
The fleets of Iolkos, Mycenae, Pylos, Thebes states allowed the Achaeans to conduct overseas trade in handicrafts, which were sometimes produced specifically for export.
The 15-14 centuries BC are characterized by the spread of Achaean products to the east — to Asia Minor (Troad), to Cyprus, to Phoenicia, Syria, Egypt, and to the west to Sicily and Southern Italy.
The complication of the state life of the Achaeans led to the development of writing: by adapting the Cretan letter to their dialect, the Achaeans created a more perfect syllabic letter B.
The documents of economic reporting on clay tablets of this letter are found in the palaces of mainland and island Greece.
Studies by M. Ventris and J. Chadwick was allowed to decipher the syllabic letter B.
The largest landowners in the Mycenaean period were the Achaean kings Vanakts and military leaders — Lavagets, lease and sublease of land were used.
Slaves down were in varying degrees of dependence on their owners.
Settlements were taxed with natural taxes.
In the 13th century, the Achaean dynasties undertook overseas campaigns.
Approximately 1200 BC is attributed to the Trojan War, as a result of which the Achaeans destroyed the rich city of Troy in Asia Minor.
The Achaean campaign against Troy was sung in Homer's poems "The Iliad" and "The Odyssey".
At the end of the 13th century, the rapid decline of the Hellenic culture began, which was due to the consequences of the Trojan War, internecine struggle, and the reduction of maritime trade with the countries of the East in connection with the migrations of the "peoples of the sea".
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The formation of the polis system
About 1200 BC.
e. from the northern regions of Greece to the south, the Dorian tribes began to invade, who still lived in the conditions of the tribal system.
They occupied part of the territory of Central and Southern Greece, destroying the Achaean states that existed there.
Athens managed to resist the onslaught of the newcomers, part of the Achaean population of the Peloponnese fled there.
The conquered local population became the property of the conquerors ' clans, which split into large family communities.
The process of enslavement of the local population proceeded differently.
In Sparta, the members of the conqueror community — the Spartiates — were opposed by the indigenous population — the Perieks.
Pushed back to the borders of the Laconic Perieks retained limited self government, engaged in crafts and trade.
In Messenia, conquered by the Spartiates, the local agricultural population helots were considered the property of the state and were attached to land plots.
Helots like categories of dependent population existed in Thessaly (Penestes), in Crete (Clarotes).
In Athens, there was a process of enslaving farmers by the ancestral nobility (Eupatrids) through debt dependence.
The basis for the further development of the productive forces was the gradual spread of iron tools and weapons.
The Dorians took from the Achaeans and Cretans the plow, wheeled carts, sailing ships, presses, a potter's wheel, the beginnings of temple and fortress architecture.
By the 9th century BC, Northern Greece was inhabited by Aeolians, Middle Greece and the east of the Peloponnese — Dorians, Attica and the west of the Peloponnese — Achaeans.
At the same time, the colonization of the islands and the coast of Asia Minor by the Greeks began: the northern regions were settled by the Aeolians, the central regions (Ionia) — by the Ionians, the southern ones by the Dorians.
The 8th 6th centuries BC were the time of the emergence and development of the polis system in Greece.
This period is characterized by the spread of iron tools and the allocation of a layer of artisans.
The separation of handicrafts from agriculture stimulated the transition to production on the market, to the development of cities.
It has become vital for cities to establish regular trade relations, supply raw materials for the production of goods and missing food products.
In the middle of the 8th century BC, the first colony of cities on the island of Euboea — Cumae in Italy was founded.
The highest rise of colonization occurred in the 7-6 centuries BC, Greek colonies spread along the northern coast of the Aegean Sea, the eastern coast of Sicily, the coast of the Gulf of Tarentum in Italy, and advanced to the Black Sea coast.
Only Miletus founded 75 colonies on the Black Sea.
The Greek trade acquired an international character, the handicrafts of the Greeks were sold on overseas markets.
Slaves, bread, raw materials, luxury goods were imported to Greece.
Coins borrowed by the Greeks from the Lydians in the 7th century became widespread.
Delphi and Olympia have received the significance of all Greek religious centers.
The political life of the Greek city states was determined by the opposition of the landed aristocracy and the social lower classes (demos).
The power of the aristocrats was based on family and ancestral ownership of land, enslavement of small farmers.
Demos opposed debt slavery, in a number of cases he achieved its abolition, in particular in Athens as a result of the reforms of Solon 594/593 BC.It was possible to suppress the resistance of the aristocracy in the conditions of tyranny — the sole power established by force and relying on the support of peasants, merchants and artisans.
The early Greek tyranny of the 7-6 centuries BC is characteristic of many cities of mainland Greece — Sikion, Corinth (the tyranny of Kipsel, Periander), Megara, later in Athens (the tyranny of Pisistratus, the reforms of Cleisthenes); Ionia Miletus, Ephesus, Samos (the tyranny of Polycrates).
As a result of the tyrants ' reforms, the economic and political privileges of the ancestral aristocracy were eliminated.
Polis (city state) became a form of organization of ancient Greek society.
The free citizens of the polis opposed the slaves and the dependent population (Clarotes, Penests, Iloti), as well as the foreigners — Meteks.
Belonging to the policy provided a collective of full fledged citizens with the right to own land and slaves.
Depending on the outcome of the struggle between the aristocrats and the demos, the regime of power in the polis could be oligarchic (in Sparta, in Crete) or democratic (in Athens).
In a number of polis (Sparta, Crete, Argos), remnants of the tribal system were preserved for a long time.
In Central and Southern Greece, there were tribal agricultural communities in which natural agriculture and the tribal system were preserved (Phocis, Aetolia, Acarnania).
Economic and political rivalry has developed between the policies.
At the end of the 6th century BC, the first major association of cities arose — the Peloponnesian Union under the leadership of Sparta, created to unite the military forces of the Peloponnese (except Argos) and to organize assistance to Sparta during the Helot uprisings.
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Classical period
In the 5th 4th centuries BC, ancient Greece experienced an era of the highest economic, political and cultural flourishing.
In history, this period was called the classical one.
In the polis, slave labor was used in handicraft workshops, in mines, and partly in agriculture.
The production of free artisans and peasants also played a significant role in the economy.
The victories in the Greco Persian wars (500-449 BC) ensured the rise of Athens, which led the Delos Union (the First Athenian Maritime Union).
The Delos Union includes policies located on the islands and the coast of the Aegean Sea.
Athens reached its greatest power during the reign of Pericles (443-429 BC).
During these years, the political system of the city was characterized by the greatest degree of democratization, the development of culture reached its apogee.
Within the framework of the Delos Union, Athens pursued a hegemonic policy, seeking to turn allies into vassals.
The transfer of the decision of the most important cases to the Athenian court, the restriction of freedom of trade, the collection of taxes (foros), punitive expeditions, the removal of clerics on the territory of the union policies caused justified discontent, especially from the oligarchic circles.
At the same time, the conflicts of Athens with Corinth and Sparta escalated, which led to the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC), which engulfed most of the Greek polis.
The war ended with the defeat of Athens, which lost its external possessions and fleet.
The period of Spartan hegemony began.
The Peloponnesian War weakened the position of all the polis, aggravated the political confrontation within them.
The ruin of peasants and artisans created poor people in the polis who were not employed in the economic sphere.
The military power of the polis was undermined: the people's militia was replaced by detachments of mercenaries.
Military affairs became the only possible profession for the poor.
In 395, the Corinthian War unleashed by Sparta (395-387 BC) began.
In this war, Sparta was opposed by a coalition of states, which included Athens, Corinth, and Thebes.
In the conditions of civil strife in Greece, the influence of the Persian power increased, which actually dictated the terms of a peace treaty to the belligerents (the Tsarist peace or the Peace of Antalkids).
As a result, Persia restored its power over the Greek cities in Asia Minor, unions of cities were prohibited in Greece, Sparta received the right to monitor and control other policies.
The Spartans tried to impose oligarchic orders on the polis, persecuted the Democrats, and became a symbol of the struggle against freedom and independence.
In 379 BC, the Theban democrats, led by Pelopidas and Epaminondas, expelled the Spartan garrison from Thebes, restored the Boeotian Union that existed in the 6th century BC.
In 378/377 BC, the Second Athenian Naval Union was formed to fight Sparta, which also included Thebes.
In 371 BC, in the Battle of Leuctra, the Thebans defeated the Spartan troops.
The brief period of the rise of Thebes ended in 362 BC after the death of the Theban commander Epaminondas in the Battle of Mantinea.
This was also facilitated by the hostile attitude of Athens towards Thebes.
In turn, the attempt of Athens to dictate its will in the Second Athenian Maritime Union was rebuffed and led to the Allied War (357-355 BC), which ended with the collapse of the union.
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Hellenistic and Roman periods
During this period, ancient Macedonia was strengthening in the north of Greece.
By 346, the Macedonian king Philip II subdued Fess Aliyah, Phocis, Halkidiki and the Thracian coast of the Aegean Sea.
The struggle of the pro Macedonian party (Isocrates, Aeschines, Philocrates) and the anti Macedonian party (Demosthenes, Hypereides) parties unfolded in Athens.
Through the efforts of Demosthenes against Macedonia, a coalition of Greek cities was created, which was defeated in the Battle of Chaeronea (338).
According to Lycurgus, one of the leaders of the anti Macedonian party, "along with the bodies of the fallen, the freedom of the Greeks was buried."
In 338-337 BC, a congress of representatives of the Greek polis, convened by Philip II, was held in Corinth.
On it, the subordination of Greece to the Macedonian king was formalized, the creation of a union of Greek city states led by Macedonia was announced.
An oligarchic regime was established in all the polis, supported by Macedonian garrisons.
The conquests of the Greek Macedonian army in the east under the command of Alexander the Great opened the period of Hellenism.
The state of Alexander the Great collapsed immediately after his death in 323 BC.
The struggle of the Diadochi (generals of Alexander the Great) and their successors (Epigones) ended with the creation of a number of independent Hellenistic states, the largest of them were the Seleucid states in the Near and Middle East, the Ptolemies in Egypt and Macedonia itself and Greece subordinate to it.
During the Hellenistic period, in most Greek states and polises, monarchs or oligarchies were in power, who disputed hegemony in Greece among themselves.
The death of Alexander the Great inspired Athens to fight for independence, but the Lamian War (323/322 BC) ended with the victory of Macedonia and the massacre of the Athenian democrats.
However, Macedonia failed to break the desire of the Greeks for independence, the Aetolian Union, created around 320 BC, opposed it.
The Aetolian Union included the cities of Southern Thessaly and Central Greece, except Athens.
Later, around 280 BC, the Achaean Union was revived, which covered most of the Peloponnese with the cities of Sikion, Corinth, and Megara.
Sparta became part of the Achaean Union in 192 BC.
Both unions fought the Macedonians, sometimes together, sometimes separately and with varying success.
A new attempt by Athens to get rid of the Macedonian power was called the Chremonid War (267-261 BC) after the Athenian commander Chremonides and ended with the defeat of the city.
Endless wars for hegemony in Greece led to the mass destruction of cities, the sale of residents into slavery.
Greek cities were also ravaged by pirates.
Up to 50 thousand people were sold into slavery from Laconica alone.
As a result, the Greek cities slowly agonized, artisans and merchants went bankrupt, the unrest of the poor became commonplace.
In 197 BC, the Romans defeated Macedonia in the Battle of Kinoskephalae and began actively interfering in the political life of Greece.
In the summer of 196 BC, the Roman general Flamininus proclaimed the "freedom" of the Greeks from Macedonia at the Isthmian Games.
This political move made the Romans popular in Greece for a while and provided support in the further struggle with Macedonia.
In 148 BC, after the suppression of the uprising of Andriscus, Macedonia was turned, along with Illyria and Epirus, into a Roman province.
The Aetolian Union was dissolved by the Romans.
In 146, the Achaean Union, which tried to resist the Romans, was defeated.
In fact, the whole of Greece was under the rule of Rome.
With the establishment of the Roman Empire (27 BC), Greece was turned into the Roman province of Achaia, except for Athens, which was nominally considered a free city.
As part of the Roman Empire, Greece did not stand out much among the eastern provinces.
In the 4th century AD, Greece formed the core of the Eastern Roman Empire — Byzantium.
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Additional literature
Kurbatov G. L. History of Byzantium.
Moscow, 1984.
History of Ancient Greece.
Moscow, 1986.
Kumanetsky K. History of Culture of ancient Greece and Rome.
Moscow, 1990.
See also
Aegean Culture Achaeans Dorians Ancient Athens Sparta (State) Thebes (Greece) Corinth (Polis) Homer Trojan War Polis Greco Persian Wars Hellenism Byzantium
The article is located in the categories
HISTORY "Ancient World" Ancient Greece and the Hellenistic world
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