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The life and work of Joseph Brodsky
Consideration of the Russian emigration of the third wave and the work of the poet I. Brodsky.
A brief biography.
Reasons and circumstances of emigration.
Literary views ("the last real innovator", "the poet of a new dimension", "the poet of a new vision").
Analysis of creativity.
Category: Literature
Type: abstract
Language: Russian
Date added: 30.06.2011
File Size: 26.4 K
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Other documents like The life and work of Joseph Brodsky
Posted on http://www.allbest.ru
Content:
Introduction
1.
Biography of Joseph Brodsky
2.
Literary views of I. Brodsky
3.
Analysis of the creativity of I. Brodsky
Conclusion
Introduction
Soviet glasnost is of particular importance for Russian foreign literature.
In Western countries, there is nothing wrong with the fact that some people live abroad.
As you know, Russian writers of the Soviet period did not have such opportunities.
Now the exile is over, although the Exodus continues.
And it's time to look back and preserve for future generations the testimony of those who survived the exile.
Literary exiles can also be considered so called internal emigrants, that is, writers who are in exile inside Russia.
Russian emigrants of the Soviet period are traditionally divided into three groups: the "first wave" - that is, those who left during or immediately after the civil war in Russia; the "second wave", which includes people who fled to the West or stayed there during the Second World War; and the "third wave" - emigrants who left the country in the seventies and later.
The subject of our research is the "third wave" of emigration.
The Soviet Union continuously waged a fierce war against emigration, publishing numerous articles that painted a gloomy picture of emigrant life.
Without departing from their hard line on emigration, the Soviet authorities resorted to the tactics used at the time to Trotsky - the deprivation of citizenship.
The history of Russian emigration is inexorably linked with the Jews in Russia.
Jews formed the main part of the economic emigration.
The "third Wave" has become a Jewish phenomenon.
Russian Russian emigrant community is becoming more and more a community of Russian Jews as the elders move away to another world.
In this paper, we will look at the world of Russian emigration and focus on the work of Joseph Brodsky.
1. Biography of Joseph Brodsky
When a baby enters the world, he is like a white sheet of paper, open to anyone who wants to write his line.
In infancy, we are all similar, in old age, we are all different.
The formation of a worldview is a process without end, even in adulthood a person can dramatically change his beliefs, but the main period of personality formation is, of course, youth.
The whole future life often depends on how the surrounding people behave, what they say or do.
Joseph Brodsky was born on May 24, 1940 in Leningrad in a Jewish family.
His father, Alexander Ivanovich Brodsky (1903-1984), was a military photojournalist, returned from the war in 1948 and joined the photo laboratory of the Naval Museum.
In 1950, he was demobilized, after that he worked as a photographer and journalist in several Leningrad newspapers.
Mother, Maria Moiseevna Volpert (1905 - 1983), worked as an accountant.
Joseph's early childhood fell on the years of war, the blockade, post war poverty and passed without a father.
In 1942, after the siege winter, Maria Moiseevna and Joseph went to Cherepovets for evacuation, and returned to Leningrad in 1944.
In 1947, Joseph went to school No. 203 on Kirochnaya Street, 8.In 1950, Joseph moved to school No. 196 on Mokhovaya Street, in 1953, Joseph went to the 7th grade at school No. 181 in Solyanoy Lane and stayed in the following year for the second year.
He applied to the naval school, but was not accepted.
He moved to school No. 289 on Narva Avenue, where he continued his studies in the 7th grade.
In 1955, at the age of less than sixteen, after finishing seven grades and starting the eighth, Brodsky left school and entered the Arsenal factory as an apprentice milling machine operator.
This decision was connected both with problems at school and with Brodsky's desire to financially support the family.
He tried unsuccessfully to enter the school of submariners.
At the age of 16, he caught fire with the idea of becoming a doctor, worked for a month as an assistant dissector in the morgue at the regional hospital, anatomized corpses, but eventually abandoned a medical career.
In addition, for five years after leaving school, Brodsky worked as a stoker in a boiler room, as a sailor at a lighthouse.
Since 1957, he worked as a worker in the geological expeditions of NIIGA: in 1957 and 1958 on the White Sea, in 1959 and 1961 - in Eastern Siberia and Northern Yakutia, on the Anabar shield.
In the summer of 1961, in the Yakut village of Nilkan, during a period of forced idleness (there were no deer for further hiking), he had a nervous breakdown, and he was allowed to return to Leningrad.
At the same time, he read a lot, but chaotically primarily poetry, philosophical and religious literature, and began to study English and Polish.
Emigration
On May 12, 1972, Brodsky was called to the OVIR of the Leningrad police and was given a choice: emigration or "hot days", that is, prisons and mental hospitals.
By that time, Brodsky had already twice had to spend several weeks in psychiatric hospitals, which was much more terrible for him than prison and exile.
Having chosen emigration, Brodsky tried to delay the day of departure as much as possible, but (perhaps in connection with Nixon's visit to the USSR) the USSR authorities wanted to send him abroad as soon as possible.
On June 4, Brodsky flew from Leningrad to Vienna.
There, in In Austria, he was introduced to W.
At the invitation of which he participated for the first time in the International Poetry Festival (Poetry International) in London in July 1972.
Subsequently, Brodsky regretted that he did not speak English well enough, so his contribution to the conversation with Auden was reduced to the same type of questions.
On the same visit, the poet also meets Isaiah Berlin.
Russian Russian literature A month after that, he began working as a visiting professor at the Department of Slavic Studies at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor: he taught the history of Russian literature, Russian poetry of the XX century, the theory of verse.
In 1981, he moved to New York.
Brodsky, who did not even graduate from school, worked in a total of six American and British universities, including Columbia and New York.
Continuing to write in English, "in order to be closer (...) to Auden," he received wide recognition in scientific and literary circles in the United States and Great Britain, was awarded the Legion of Honor in France.
He was engaged in literary translations into Russian (in particular, he translated the play "Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead" by Tom Stoppard) and into English poems by V. V. Nabokov.
In 1986, Brodsky's collection of essays "Less Than One" ("Less than One"), written in English it was recognized as the best literary critical book of the year in the United States.
In 1987, Brodsky won the Nobel Prize in Literature, which was awarded to him for "comprehensive creativity, saturated with the purity of thought and the brightness of poetry."
In Stockholm, when asked by an interviewer whether he considers himself a Russian or an American, Brodsky replied: "I am a Jew, a Russian poet and an English essayist."
In other cases, he defined himself as " a Jew, a Russian poet and an American citizen."
Russian Russian Samovar restaurant, which has become one of the centers of Russian culture in New York, was awarded a part of the Nobel Prize by Brodsky.
He himself remained one of its famous regular visitors until the end of his life.
Brodsky was also a recipient of the MacArthur Fellowship, the National Book Award and was elected a poet laureate of the United States by the Library of Congress.
Brodsky's parents applied twelve times to be allowed to see their son (together or separately), but even after Brodsky underwent open heart surgery in 1978 and an official letter was written from the clinic asking them to allow their parents to come to the United States to care for their sick son, they were refused.
Brodsky's mother died in 1983, and his father died a little more than a year later.
Both times Brodsky was not allowed to come to the funeral.
In 1986, "Performance" was written.
The parents are dedicated to "The thought of you is removed like a demoted servant..." (1985)
, "In memory of my father: Australia" (1989), the essay "One and a half rooms" (1985).
With the beginning of Perestroika, Brodsky's poems, literary and journalistic articles about the poet began to be published in the USSR.
In the 1990s, books began to be published.
In 1995, Brodsky was awarded the title of Honorary Citizen of St. Petersburg.
Invitations to return to their homeland followed.
Brodsky postponed his arrival: he was embarrassed by the publicity of such an event, honoring, and the attention of the press that would accompany his visit.
One of the last arguments was: "The best part of me is already there - my poems."
The motive of return and non return is present in his poems of the 1990s, in particular, in the poems " Letter to the Oasis "(1991)," Ithaca "(1993)," We lived in a city the color of petrified vodka... " (1994), and in the last two as if the return really happened.
In 1990, Brodsky married the Russian Italian translator Maria Sozzani.
He spoke English with their common daughter.
Brodsky died of a heart attack on the night of January 28, 1996 in New York.
He was buried in one of the most beloved cities Venice - in the cemetery of the island of San Michele.
So, there are no separations.
There is a huge meeting.
So, someone suddenly found us
in the dark, he puts his arm around my shoulders...
brodsky poet emigration creativity
2.
Literary views of Joseph Brodsky
Joseph Brodsky is often called "the last real innovator", "the poet of a new dimension" or "the poet of a new vision".
In all the" definitions " of the Brodsky poet, the word "new"is present.
And this, I think, is not accidental.
He is a poet and thinker, striking with unconventional thoughts.
Any cultured person follows the course developed by mankind, and his pride consists in the fact that he repeats the latest achievements of culture.
Brodsky, on the contrary, avoids reading what dozens of generations before him sought to understand.
To the question: "What is your poetic hierarchy?".
Brodsky replied, in an interview with John Glad: "Well, first of all, we are talking about values, although not only about values.
The fact is that every writer constantly changes his assessments throughout his life.
In his mind, there is a sort of table of ranks, say, that one is at the bottom, and that one is at the top...
In general, as it seems to me, the writer, at least I, builds this scale for the following reasons: this or that author, this or that idea is more important to him than another author or another idea, simply because this author absorbs the previous ones.
Ultimately, every writer strives for the same thing: to overtake or retain the lost or current time."
Language, according to Brodsky , is an anatomy, the highest creative value, language is primary.
Brodsky's work explores the conflict of two philosophical categories: space and time.
"What interests me most of all," Brodsky writes, " and has always been interested in, is time and the effect it has on a person, how it changes it, how it sharpens it, that is, this is such a practical time in its duration.
This is, if you like, what happens to a person during life, what time does to a person, how it transforms him... in fact, literature is not about life, and life itself is not about life, but about two categories, more or less about two: space and time... time is a much more interesting category for me than space."
The poet does not like space, because it extends in breadth, that is, it leads to nowhere.
Time loves, because it eventually ends with eternity, passes into it Hence the conflict between these categories, which takes part in the form of a confrontation between white and black "The dictate of language is what is colloquially called the dictate of the muse, in fact, it is not the muse that dictates to you, but the language that exists at a certain level in addition to your will," Brodsky said in an interview; he repeated this idea in his Nobel speech.
"The dictate of language is what is colloquially called the dictate of the muse, in fact, it is not the muse that dictates to you, but the language that exists at a certain level in addition to your will," Brodsky said in an interview; he repeated this idea in his Nobel speech.
What ontological value does an artistic word have in the modern world, which puts an individual before a choice: "to live his own life, and not imposed or prescribed from the outside, even the most noble looking life" or "to spend this only chance on repeating someone else's appearance, someone else's experience, on tautology"?[from the Nobel speech]
The word as a resistance to any despotism, as the future of culture, realized in its present.
Brodsky embodied these words of Tsvetaeva in his poetic experience, as well as in the life that threw him on a distant shore.
Brodsky embodied these words of Tsvetaeva in his poetic experience, as well as in the life that threw him on a distant shore.
3. Analysis of the work of Joseph Brodsky
The winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1987, the poet of Russian culture now, by the will of fate, belongs to American civilization.
Robert Sylvester wrote about Brodsky: "Unlike the poets of the older generation, who matured at a time when a high poetic culture flourished in Russia, Brodsky, born in 1940, grew up at a time when Russian poetry was in a state of chronic decline, and as a result was forced to pave his own path."
Sylvester's statement is fair enough, because what existed on the pages of the press was given out as poetry - but it was absolute nonsense, it's a shame to talk about it, and I donot want to remember it.
"The value of our generation lies in the fact that, without any preparation, we laid these very roads, if you will," Brodsky writes.
"We acted not only at our own risk, it goes without saying, but just purely on intuition.
And what is remarkable is that human intuition leads to precisely those results that are not so strikingly different from what the previous culture produced, so we have not yet broken up the chains of time, and this is wonderful."
The poet of Russian culture now belongs to the American civilization.
But the matter is not limited to civilization.
In the case of Brodsky, emigration is not just a geographical concept.
Thus, in the poet's work, two heterogeneous cultures came together and intricately intertwined, and their "convergence", a unique case to a certain extent, somewhat resembles the creative fate of V. Nabokov.
In his book of essays "Less than One", written in English, as the Americans themselves believe, plastically and flawlessly, Brodsky introduces the American reader to the world of Russian poetry.
In his own Russian poems, the poet soars over the American landscape:
The northwest wind lifts it over
blue, purple, crimson, scarlet
the Connecticut Valley.
He's already
does not see the delicious promenade
chickens in the dilapidated yard
farms, gophers on the border.
Sprawled out on the air stream, alone,
all he sees is a ridge of sloping hills
hills and silver river,
curling like a living blade,
steel in the notches of rolling,
towns similar to beads
New England...
This strong lone flight of the hawk, heading South to the Rio Grande, on the threshold of winter, traced, it would seem that the American eye, but confused by the final line of the poem: the kids, seeing the first snow, "shouting in English: "Winter, winter!"
What language her scream in the US, not in English?
The last line evokes the tightness of the American world, inspires suspicion that there was not without mystifying mimicry, destroyed in the end intentionally and for sure.
A black linguistic hole suddenly appears in the scenery of the American sky, no less terrible than the autumn cry of a bird, whose image, already loaded with the weight of a heterogeneous meaning, acquires a new, fourth dimension in view of that hole, where the hawk rushes:
...Everything is higher.
Into the ionosphere.
In an astronomically objective hell
birds where there is no oxygen,
where instead of millet - cereals of distant
stars.
What is high for two legged people,
the opposite is true for birds.
Not by the cerebellum, but in the sacs of the lungs
he guesses: there is no escape.
And here is a poem from Brodsky's book "Parts of speech" (1977).
It is written in the familiar form of a fragment that makes us remember that he belongs to the Akhmatova school:
...and when the word "coming" from the Russian language
the mice run out and the whole horde
they gnaw off a tasty piece
remember that your cheese is full of holes.
After how many winters, it doesnot matter that
or who is standing in the corner by the window behind the curtain,
and in the brain there is not an unearthly " before",
but her rustling.
The life that,
as a gift thing, do not look into the mouth,
he bares his teeth at every meeting.
A part of the whole person remains to you
speeches.
Part of it in general.
Part of the speech.
The poem begins with Brodsky with a lowercase letter after the dot.
When the word "future" is used, other words with their inherent traces of moods, emotions, and feelings arise from the language at the whim of associations.
They, like mice, bite into the memory, and then it turns out that the memory has become leaky, that much has already been forgotten.
A word entails another word not only in meaning, many associations arise from consonance: the coming mouse Curtain rustling.
This sound theme is followed by another: Life exposes in each.
Then the third one develops: Meeting A Person Part of speech Part of speech Part of speech.
This is not just an instrumentation on three themes of hissing consonants, these are the words of a mouse that run out and fuss at the very word "coming".
Brodsky's work is metaphysical, it is a microcosm where God and the devil, faith and atheism, chastity and cynicism get along His poetry is extremely voluminous and - at the same time diverse.
It is no coincidence that one of his best collections is named after the muse of astronomy - Urania.
Addressing Urania, Brodsky writes:
By day and by the light of blind smokers,
you see: she didnot hide anything
and, looking at the globe, you look at the back of your head.
There they are, those forests full of blueberries,
rivers where they catch beluga by hand,
or - the city in whose phone book
you are no longer registered.
Further south,
that is, to the southeast, the mountains are turning brown,
horses wander in the sedge przhevali;
their faces turn yellow.
And then the battleships are sailing,
and the expanse turns blue, like underwear with lace.
"...often, when I compose a poem and try to catch a rhyme, instead of Russian, an English one comes out, but these are costs that are always high for this production.
And it doesnot matter what rhyme these costs take," Brodsky says about the "technology" of his work.
"Most of all, I am interested in the process, not its consequences. "" ...when I write poetry in English, it is more like a game, chess, if you like, such a folding of dice.
Although I often find myself thinking that the psychological and emotional acoustic processes are identical."
It's windy.
It's damp and dark.
And windy.
Midnight throws leaves and branches on
the roof.
You can say with confidence:
here I will die my days, losing
hair, teeth, verbs, suffixes,
scooping with a cap that is a Suzdal helmet,
from the ocean, a wave to narrow down,
brittle fish, let it be raw.
Brodsky, like Akhmatova and Mandelstam, is a very literary poet, he has many allusions to his predecessors.
In the above excerpt from the poem "1972" there is a hint of "The Word about Igor's Regiment", at the end Heine is paraphrased; another poem begins: "From nowhere with love, nadtsaty Mart ..." is Gogol's "Notes of a Madman".
Khlebnikov suddenly appears:
Classical ballet!
The art of better days!
When your grog was sizzling and you were kissed on both sides,
and the dauntless raced, and bobeobi was sung,
and if there was an enemy, then he was - Marshal Ney.
Brodsky's poetic world, in fact, turns out to be a square, the sides of which are: despair, love, common sense and irony.
Brodsky was originally an intelligent poet, that is, a poet who found the specific weight of time in the poetic economy of eternity.
That is why he quickly overcame the "childhood illness" of a certain part of the contemporary Moscow Leningrad poetry, the so called "sixties", the main pathos of which is determined... however, Brodsky paid a fleeting tribute to this pathos, at least in the early, very banal poems about the monument:
We will put up a monument
at the end of a long city street...
At the foot of the pedestal I guarantee it -
every morning they will appear
flowers...
Such poems about the monument provided the poet with a reputation as a troublemaker, and Brodsky clearly appreciated this reputation in the late 50s.
But the theme of existential despair was much stronger and more self willed in the poetry of the young Brodsky, capturing the genre of parting themes along the way, mixing with the theme of the absurdity of life and looking out of all the cracks of death:
Death is all machines,
this is a prison and a garden.
Death is all men,
their ties are hanging.
Death is the glass in the bath,
in the church, in the houses in a row!
Death is all that is with us -
for they will not see.
Such a violent "pessimism" in combination with the" fronde " was fraught with a public scandal.
Love is a powerful engine of Brodsky's poetry.
Ordinary love is intertwined with despair and anxiety.
A love tragedy can turn into a farce, set out by a brisk Iambic: Petrov was married to her sister, but he loved his sister in law; having confessed this to her, he drowned in the Dniester river the summer before last, after going on vacation.
("Tea Party")
Farce decomposes love especially when it is weak - into composite elements fraught with naturalism:Having passed all her exams, she
I invited a friend to my house on Saturday;
it was evening, and it was tightly corked
there was a bottle of red wine.
("Debut")
Irony in Brodsky's poetry is directly connected with common sense.
Brodsky does not speak directly about the main thing, but always evasively, in vague terms.
He comes in from one side and from the other, looking for new opportunities to get through to the idea, to the interlocutor.
The structure of Brodsky's poem is basically open.
The artistic expediency of each episode is visible, and the composition is often based on symmetry, so that the masses of poems are relatively easily visible.
One can even identify such a pattern: in short poems, formal restrictions are often weakened, and in long ones they increase.
In short texts, Brodsky sometimes goes so far as to completely destroy the form.
So in the poem "Sonnet" (1962), where not a single rule of construction of this solid stanza form is observed, with the exception of one: it contains 14 verses:
We are living by the bay again,
and the clouds are passing over us,
and the modern Vesuvius rattles,
and the dust settles down the alleys,
and the windows of the alleys rattle.
Someday we will also be covered with ashes.
So I would like to in this poor hour
Come to the outskirts by tram,
enter your house,
and if in hundreds of years
a squad will come to dig up our city,
then I would like to be found
we will remain forever in your arms,
covered with new ashes.
In 1965, Brodsky formulated his credo, which remained in force until the end of his life.
In the poem "To a poetess" he wrote:
I am infected with normal classicism.
And you, my friend, are infected with sarcasm...
Brodsky discovers three types of poetry:
One singer prepares a report.
The other gives rise to a muffled murmur.
And the third knows that he himself is only a mouthpiece.
And he plucks all the flowers of kinship.
Brodsky's poetics serves the desire to overcome the fear of death and the fear of life.
Brodsky reached the limit in fusing all the stylistic layers of the language.
It connects the highest with the lowest.
The beginning of the poem " Bust of Tiberius":
I greet you for two thousand years
afterwards.
You were married to a whore, too.
One of the most characteristic features of Brodsky's poetic speech is long complex syntactic constructions that overflow over the boundaries of lines and stanzas, sometimes really evoking associations with the steel tracks of a tank that is irresistibly rolling on the reader.
In" Poems about the Winter Company of 1980", a tank appears and literally shackled in the armor of tropes, floats out of the horizon of the stanza with endless syntactic hyphenations and falls on the reader:
Mechanical elephant, lifting its trunk
terrified of the black mouse
mines in the snow, spewing to the throat
a lump that came up, obsessed with a thought,
like Mahomet, to move a mountain from its place.
Tank elephant, cannon trunk, mine mouse.
From these two rows of themes, an image grows.
Brodsky often has images that arise at the intersection of completely unexpectedly juxtaposed themes.
Brodsky's poems, in their entirety, are a hymn to the infinite possibilities of the Russian language, everything is written in his glory:
Listen, squad, enemies and brothers!
Everything that I did, I did not do for the sake of
fame in the era of cinema and radio,
but for the sake of native speech, literature.
For what joy is the priesthood
(it was said to the doctor: let him be treated himself),
cups lost in the feast of the Fatherland,
now I'm standing in an unfamiliar area.
It is precisely the belief in language that introduces Brodsky to classical aesthetics, preserves his existential right to be a poet who does not feel the absurdity of his position, to suspect a serious and unsolved meaning behind culture and, what is also important, to restrain the whims of a wayward lyrical "I", otherwise he is thrown in all directions within the emotional square: from love madness to ironic recognition, from the assertion of his genius to the assertion of his own insignificance.
As a true creator, he summed up his own creativity.
Generally speaking, Brodsky is not just a poet.
In my opinion, Russian poetry lacked a philosopher to look at the whole picture and at the same time could tell about what he saw.
Brodsky told me.
I donot know if this is good or bad, but he managed to convey all the pain of our time, the fear of Nothing hidden in the ordinary, metaphysical melancholy, "and so on."
And it depends only on us whether his word can break through to us in our microuniverses to bring the light of revelation there.
Conclusion
On May 24, 1980, on the day of his fortieth birthday, Brodsky wrote a poem that summed up not only his own life over the previous years, but to a certain extent the search for Russian poetry in the field of language, poetic form, cultural and historical context, artistic and ethical freedom.
Here is not only the fate of Brodsky, but, in general, the fate of the Russian poet in general.
I was entering a cage instead of a wild animal,
he burned out his term and nickname with a nail in the barracks,
he lived by the sea, played roulette,
I dined with the devil knows who in a tailcoat.
From the height of the glacier, I looked around half the world,
I drowned three times, I was cut up twice.
I left the country that nurtured me.
You can make a city out of those who have forgotten me.
I loitered in the steppes, remembering the cries of the Hun,
I put it on myself, which is becoming fashionable again,
he sowed rye, covered the threshing floor with black roofing,
and he didnot drink only dry water.
I let the blue pupil of the convoy into my dreams,
he ate the bread of exile, leaving no crusts,
he allowed his ligaments to make all the sounds, apart from howling;
he lowered his voice to a whisper.
I'm forty now.
What can you tell me about life?
That it turned out to be long.
Only with grief do I feel solidarity.
But so far my mouth has not been taken away with clay,
only gratitude will be distributed from it.
Brodsky considers the poet's only duty to society to be the duty to "write well".
In fact, not only before society, but also before world culture.
The poet's task is to find his place in culture and correspond to it.
Which, I think, Brodsky successfully did.
The loss of connection with the living, changing Russian language cannot pass without a trace; it is a payment for fate, which, through the sufferings, torments and fanaberia of the poet, gives him the right to feel fully himself an instrument of language at the moment when the language is not in the usual state of reality, but in a position of elusive value, when the autumn cry of a hawk acquires a painful piercing.
Reviewing the work of Joseph Brodsky, you involuntarily come to the conclusion: this is the poet of the new vision.
A poet, which has not yet been in the history of Russian literature of the twentieth century.
List of literature
1.
Baevsky V. S.
The history of Russian poetry.
1730-1980, Moscow: New School, 1996
2.
Barannikov A.V., Kalganova T. A., Rybchenkova L. M.
Russian literature of the twentieth century.
Anthology of the 11th grade.
- Moscow: Prosveshchenie, 1993
3.
Glad John Talks in Exile.
Russian literary abroad.
- M.: Book Chamber, 1991
4.
Erofeev V. V.
In the labyrinth of cursed questions.
- Moscow: Soviet writer, 1990
5.
Prishchepa V. P., Prishchepa V. A. Literature of the Russian abroad.
Training manual.
- Abakan, 1994
6.
http://www.ed.vseved.ru/
7.
http://ru.wikipedia.org/
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