Tolstoy, Lev Nikolaevich
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Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy
Leo Tolstoy in Yasnaya Polyana (1908).
Original color photo
works of S. M. Prokudin Gorsky[1][2] Aliases: L. N., L. N. T.[3]
Date of birth: August 28 (September 9), 1828 (1828-09-09)
Place of birth: Yasnaya Polyana,
Tula province,
The Russian Empire
Date of death: November 7 (20), 1910 (1910-11-20) (82 years old)
Place of death: Astapovo station,
Ryazan province,
The Russian Empire
Citizenship (citizenship): The Russian Empire[4][5]
Occupation: novelist, publicist, philosopher
Creative years: 1847-1910
Direction: Realism
Genre: short story, novel, novel, drama
Language of works: Russian
Awards:
Signature:
tolstoy.ru Works on the site Lib.ru Works in Wikitek Files on Wikimedia Commons Quotes in Wikicitatnik
Recording of the voice of Leo Tolstoy
Audio recording "The time has come", 1908 Playback assistance
Recording of the voice of Leo Tolstoy
An appeal to the students of the Yasnaya Polyana School.
1908 Reproduction Assistance
Recording of the voice of Leo Tolstoy
Sound letter of L. N. Tolstoy to N. V. Davydov, 1908 Help on reproduction
Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy[K 1] (August 28 [September 9] 1828, Yasnaya Polyana, Tula Province, Russian Empire — November 7 [20] 1910, Astapovo station, Ryazan Province, Russian Empire) — one of the most famous Russian writers and thinkers, one of the greatest writers in the world[6].
Participant of the defense of Sevastopol.
An educator, publicist, religious thinker, his authoritative opinion caused the emergence of a new religious and moral trend — Tolstoyism.
Corresponding member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences (1873), honorary academician in the category of fine literature (1900) [7].
A writer who was recognized as the head of Russian literature during his lifetime[8].
The work of Leo Tolstoy marked a new stage in Russian and world realism, acting as a bridge between the classic novel of the XIX century and the literature of the XX century.
Leo Tolstoy had a strong influence on the evolution of European humanism, as well as on the development of realistic traditions in world literature.
The works of Leo Tolstoy were repeatedly filmed and staged in the USSR and abroad; his plays were staged on stages around the world[8].
The most famous works of Tolstoy are the novels "War and Peace", "Anna Karenina", "Resurrection", the autobiographical[9][8] trilogy "Childhood", "Adolescence", "Youth"[K 2], the novellas "Cossacks", "The Death of Ivan Ilyich", "Kreutzer Sonata", "Hadji Murad", the cycle of essays "Sevastopol stories", the dramas "The Living Corpse", "The Fruits of Enlightenment" and "The Power of Darkness", autobiographical religious and philosophical works "Confession" and "What is my faith?" et al.
Content
1 Biography 1.1 Origin 1.2 Childhood 1.3 Education 1.4 The beginning of literary activity 1.5 Military service 1.6 Travels in Europe 1.7 Treatment in the Bashkir nomad Karalyk 1.8 Pedagogical activity 1.9 Social activity in the 1860s 1.10 The heyday of creativity 1.10.1 "War and Peace".
1.10.2 "Anna Karenina" 1.10.3 Other works 1.10.4 Literary criticism of Shakespeare's works
1.11 Participation in the Moscow census 1.12 In Moscow 1.13 Spiritual crisis and preaching 1.14 Excommunication from the Church 1.15 Leaving Yasnaya Polyana, death and funeral
2 Family 2.1 Views on the family.
The family in Tolstoy's work
3 Philosophy 4 Bibliography 4.1 Lifetime and posthumous editions of collected works 4.2 Translations of works
5 World recognition.
Memory 5.1 In the cinema
6 The meaning and influence of creativity 7 Writers, Thinkers and Religious Figures about Tolstoy 8 Criticism 8.1 Literary Criticism 8.2 Religious Criticism 8.3 Criticism of the writer's Social views
9 Film adaptations of works 10 See also 11 Notes 11.1 Comments 11.2 Used literature and sources
12 Literature 12.1 Books 12.2 Articles 12.2.1 Academic research 12.2.2 Reviews of critics and cultural figures
13 References 13.1 Creativity 13.1.1 Collected works
13.2 Newsreels and audio recordings
Biography[edit / edit wiki text]
Origin[edit / edit wiki text]
The family tree of L. N. Tolstoy
Main article: Thick
A representative of the count's branch of the Tolstoy noble family, descended from Peter's associate P. A. Tolstoy.
The writer had extensive family ties in the world of the highest aristocracy.
Among the cousins of his father are the adventurer and brether F. I. Tolstoy, the artist F. P. Tolstoy, the beautiful M. I. Lopukhina, the socialite A. F. Zakrevskaya, the chamber maid of honor A. A. Tolstaya.
The poet A. K. Tolstoy was his second cousin.
Among the mother's cousins are Lieutenant General D. M. Volkonsky and a rich emigrant N. I. Trubetskoy.
A. P. Mansurov and A.V. Vsevolozhsky were married to their mother's cousins.
Tolstoy was connected by property with the ministers A. A. Zakrevsky and L. A. Perovsky (married to his parents ' cousins), the generals of 1812 L. I. Depreradovich (married to his grandmother's sister) and A. I. Yushkov (brother in law of one of the aunts), as well as with the chancellor A.M. Gorchakov (brother in law of another aunt).
The common ancestor of Leo Tolstoy and Pushkin was Admiral Ivan Golovin, who helped Peter I create the Russian fleet.
The features of Ilya Andreevich's grandfather are given in "War and Peace" to the good natured, impractical old Count Rostov.
Ilya Andreevich's son, Nikolai Ilyich Tolstoy (1794-1837), was the father of Lev Nikolaevich.
In some character traits and biography facts, he was similar to Nikolenka's father in "Childhood" and "Adolescence" and partly to Nikolai Rostov in "War and Peace".
However, in real life, Nikolai Ilyich differed from Nikolai Rostov not only with a good education, but also with beliefs that did not allow him to serve under Nicholas I.
A participant in the foreign campaign of the Russian army against Napoleon, including participated in the" battle of the peoples " near Leipzig and was captured by the French, but was able to escape, after the conclusion of peace, he retired with the rank of lieutenant colonel of the Pavlograd Hussar regiment.
Soon after his resignation, he was forced to enter the official service in order not to end up in debt prison because of the debts of his father, the Kazan governor, who died under investigation for official abuses.
The negative example of his father helped Nikolai Ilyich develop his life ideal — a private independent life with family joys[10].
To put his frustrated affairs in order, Nikolai Ilyich (like Nikolai Rostov), married the no longer very young Princess Maria Nikolaevna from the Volkonsky family in 1822, the marriage was happy.
They had five children: Nikolai (1823-1860), Sergey (1826-1904), Dmitry (1827-1856), Lev, Maria (1830-1912).
Tolstoy's maternal grandfather, Catherine's general, Prince Nikolai Sergeyevich Volkonsky, had some resemblance to the stern rigorist the old Prince Bolkonsky in "War and Peace" [11].
Lev Nikolaevich's mother, similar in some respects to the Princess Mary depicted in "War and Peace", had a wonderful gift of a storyteller.
The ancestors of Leo Tolstoy
16.
Count Ivan Petrovich Tolstoy
(1685—1728)
8.
Count Tolstoy, Andrey Ivanovich (1721-1803)
17.
Praskovya Mikhailovna Rtischeva
(1690—1748)
4.
Count Ilya Andreevich Tolstoy (1757-1820)
18.
Prince Ivan Dmitrievich Shchetinin
(1???–1???)
9. Alexandra Ivanovna Shchetinina (1727-1811)
19.
Anna Yegorovna ? (1722 after 1754)
2. Count Nikolai Ilyich Tolstoy
(1794—1837)
20.
Prince Gorchakov, Ivan Fedorovich
(1694—1750)
10.
Gorchakov, Nikolai Ivanovich (1725-1811)
21.
Tatyana Grigoryevna Mortkina
(1???–1???)
5. Pelageya Nikolaevna Gorchakova (1762-1838)
1.
Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy
24.
Prince Fyodor Mikhailovich Volkonsky
(1???—1747)
12.
Prince Sergei Fedorovich Volkonsky
(1715—1784)
25.
Ekaterina Matveevna Eropkina
(1???—1723)
6.
Prince Nikolai Sergeyevich Volkonsky (1753-1821)
13.
Maria Dmitrievna Chaadaeva (1???—1775)
3.
Princess Maria Nikolaevna Volkonskaya (1790-1830)
28.
Prince Yuri Yuryevich Trubetskoy
(1668—1739)
14.
Prince Dmitry Yuryevich Trubetskoy
(1724—1792)
29.
Olga Ivanovna Golovina
7.
Princess Ekaterina Dmitrievna Trubetskaya (1749-1799)
30.
Prince Ivan Vasilyevich Odoevsky
(1710—1768)
15.
Princess Varvara Ivanovna Odoyevskaya
(1???—1788)
31.
Praskovya Ivanovna Tolstaya
(1709—1758)
Childhood[edit / edit wiki text]
The silhouette of M. N. Volkonskaya is the only image of the writer's mother.
the 1810s
Nikolai Ilyich Tolstoy, the writer's father.
Unknown artist.
Paper, watercolor.
1823.
Leo Tolstoy was born on August 28, 1828 in the Krapivensky district of the Tula province, in the hereditary estate of his mother — Yasnaya Polyana.
He was the fourth child in the family.
The mother died in 1830, six months after the birth of her daughter from "birth fever", as they said then, when Leo was not yet 2 years old.
A distant relative of T. A. Ergolskaya took up the upbringing of orphaned children.
In 1837, the family moved to Moscow, settling on Plyushchikha, as the eldest son had to prepare for admission to the university.
Soon his father, Nikolai Ilyich, died suddenly, leaving the affairs (including some lawsuits related to the family's property) in an unfinished state, and the three younger children again settled in Yasnaya Polyana under the supervision of Yergolskaya and her paternal aunt, Countess A.M. Osten Saken, who was appointed guardian of the children.
Here Lev Nikolaevich remained until 1840, when Osten Saken died, the children moved to Kazan, to a new guardian — his father's sister P. I. Yushkova.
The Yushkovs ' house was considered one of the most cheerful in Kazan; all family members highly appreciated the external brilliance.
"My good aunt," Tolstoy says, " is a pure being, she always said that she would like nothing more for me than for me to have an affair with a married woman."
Lev Nikolaevich wanted to shine in society, but his natural shyness and lack of external attractiveness prevented him.
The most diverse, as Tolstoy himself defines them, "speculations" about the most important issues of our existence happiness, death, God, love, eternity left an imprint on his character in that era of life.
What he told in his "Adolescence" and "Youth", in the novel "Resurrection" about the aspirations of Irtenyev and Nekhludoff for self improvement, is taken by Tolstoy from the history of his own ascetic attempts of this time.
All this, wrote the critic S. A. Vengerov, led to the fact that Tolstoy created, in the words of his story "Adolescence", "a habit of constant moral analysis, which destroyed the freshness of feeling and clarity of reason."
Giving examples of self analysis of this period, he ironically speaks about the exaggeration of his adolescent philosophical self love and greatness, and at the same time notes the insurmountable inability to "get used to not being ashamed of every single word and movement" when confronted with real people, whose benefactor he then seemed to himself.
Education[edit / edit wiki text]
The house where L. N. Tolstoy was born, 1828.
In 1854, the house was sold by order of the writer for export to the village of Dolgoye.
It was broken in 1913.
His education was initially handled by the French tutor Saint Thomas (the prototype of St. Jerome in the story "Adolescence"), who replaced the good natured German Reselman, whom Tolstoy portrayed in the story" Childhood " under the name of Karl Ivanovich.
In 1843, P. I. Yushkova, taking on the role of guardian of her minor nephews (only the eldest, Nikolai, was of age) and nieces, brought them to Kazan.
Following his brothers Nikolai, Dmitry and Sergei, Lev decided to enter the Imperial Kazan University (the most famous at that time), where Lobachevsky worked at the mathematical faculty, and Kovalevsky worked at the Eastern Faculty.
On October 3, 1844, Leo Tolstoy was enrolled as a student of the category of Oriental (Arabic Turkish) literature as a self paying student[12].
At the entrance exams, in particular, he showed excellent results in the "Turkish Tatar language", which is mandatory for admission.
According to the results of the year, he had poor academic performance in the relevant subjects, failed the transition exam and had to re pass the first year program.
In order to avoid a complete repetition of the course, he moved to the law faculty, where his problems with grades in some subjects continued.
The transitional May exams of 1846 were passed satisfactorily (he received one five, three fours and four threes; the average output turned out to be three), and Lev Nikolaevich was transferred to the second year[13].
Lev Tolstoy spent less than two years at the Faculty of Law: "It was always difficult for him to get any education imposed by others, and everything he learned in life, he learned himself, suddenly, quickly, with hard work," writes S. A. Tolstaya in her "Materials for the biography of L. N. Tolstoy"[14].
In 1904, he recalled: "...I didnot do anything for the first year ...
In the second year I started studying ... there was Professor Meyer, who ... gave me a job a comparison of the "Order" Catherine with Esprit des lois <"The spirit of the laws" (fr.)Russian.
> Montesquieu. ...
I was fascinated by this work, I went to the country, began to read Montesquieu, this reading opened up endless horizons for me;
I began to read Rousseau and dropped out of university, precisely because I wanted to study"[15].
The beginning of literary activity[edit / edit wiki text]
Tolstoy kept his diary from a young age until the end of his life.
Notes from the notebook of 1891-1895.
Since March 11, 1847, Tolstoy was in the Kazan hospital, on March 17 he began to keep a diary, where, imitating Benjamin Franklin, he set goals and tasks for self improvement, noted successes and failures in performing these tasks, analyzed his shortcomings and the course of thoughts, the motives of his actions[16].
He kept this diary with small interruptions throughout his life.
After completing treatment, in the spring of 1847, Tolstoy left his studies at the university and went to Yasnaya Polyana, which he inherited under the section [17]; his activities there are partly described in the work "The Morning of the Landowner": Tolstoy tried to establish relations with the peasants in a new way.
His attempt to somehow smooth out the young landowner's sense of guilt before the people dates back to the same year when D. V. Grigorovich's "Anton Goremyka" and the beginning of I. S. Turgenev's "Notes of the Hunter" appeared.
In his diary, Tolstoy formulated a large number of life rules and goals, but he managed to follow only a small part of them.
Among the successful ones — serious classes in English, music, law.
In addition, neither the diary nor the letters reflected the beginning of Tolstoy's studies in pedagogy and charity, although in 1849 he first opened a school for peasant children.
The main teacher was Foka Demidovich, a serf, but Lev Nikolaevich himself often conducted classes[10].
In mid October 1848, Tolstoy left for Moscow, settling where many of his relatives and friends lived in the Arbat district.
He rented Ivanova's house on the Sivtsevo Vrazhka for living.
In Moscow, he was going to start preparing for the candidate's exams, but classes were never started.
Instead, he was attracted to a completely different side of life — social life.
In addition to his passion for social life, in Moscow, in the winter of 1848-1849, Lev Nikolaevich for the first time had a passion for a card game.
But since he played very recklessly and not always thinking about his moves, he often lost[18].
After leaving for St. Petersburg in February 1849, he spent time on carousals with K. A. Islavin, the uncle of his future wife ("My love for Islavin spoiled for me the whole 8 months of my life in St. Petersburg").
In the spring, Tolstoy began to take the exam for a candidate of rights; he passed two exams, from criminal law and criminal proceedings, successfully, but he did not take the third exam and left for the village[19].
Later, he came to Moscow, where he often spent time gambling, which often had a negative impact on his financial situation.
During this period of his life, Tolstoy was especially passionately interested in music (he himself played the piano well and greatly appreciated his favorite works performed by others).
His passion for music prompted him to write the "Kreutzer Sonata" later[20].
Tolstoy's favorite composers were Bach, Handel and Chopin.
Tolstoy's love for music was also promoted by the fact that during a trip to St. Petersburg in 1848, he met in a very unsuitable dance class environment with a gifted but lost German musician, whom he later described in the story "Albert".
In 1849, Lev Nikolaevich settled a musician Rudolf in Yasnaya Polyana, with whom he played four handed on the piano.
Being interested in music at that time, he played works by Schumann, Chopin, Mozart, Mendelssohn for several hours a day.
In the late 1840s, Tolstoy co authored a waltz with his friend Zybin, which he performed in the early 1900s with the composer S. I. Taneyev, who made a musical notation of this musical work (the only one composed by Tolstoy)[21].
The waltz is played in the film Father Sergius, based on the story by Leo Tolstoy[22].
A lot of time was also spent on carousing, playing and hunting.
In the winter of 1850-1851, he began to write "Childhood".
In March 1851, he wrote "The History of Yesterday".
4 years after he left the university, Lev Nikolayevich's brother Nikolai, who served in the Caucasus, came to Yasnaya Polyana, who invited his younger brother to join military service in the Caucasus.
Lev did not agree immediately, until a major loss in Moscow accelerated the final decision.
Biographers of the writer note the significant and positive influence of brother Nikolai on the young and inexperienced in everyday affairs of Leo.
The older brother, in the absence of his parents, was his friend and mentor[23].
In order to pay off his debts, it was necessary to reduce his expenses to a minimum — and in the spring of 1851, Tolstoy hurriedly left Moscow for the Caucasus without a specific goal.
Soon he decided to enlist in the military, but for this he lacked the necessary documents left in Moscow, in anticipation of which Tolstoy lived for about five months in Pyatigorsk, in a simple hut.
He spent a significant part of his time hunting, in the company of the Cossack Epishka, the prototype of one of the heroes of the story "The Cossacks", who appears there under the name Eroshka[9].
Tolstoy and his brother Nikolai before leaving for the Caucasus, 1851
In the autumn of 1851, Tolstoy, having passed the exam in Tiflis, entered as a cadet in the 4th battery of the 20th Artillery Brigade, which stood in the Cossack village of Starogladovskaya on the bank of the Terek, near Kizlyar.
With some changes in details, she is depicted in the story "The Cossacks".
The story reproduces a picture of the inner life of a young master who fled from Moscow life.
In the Cossack village of Tolstoy began to write and in July 1852 sent to the editor in the most popular magazine Sovremennik first part of the future autobiographical trilogy — "Childhood"[9] signed only by the initials "L. N. T.".
When sending the manuscript to the journal of Leo Tolstoy put the letter, which said: "...I look forward to your sentence.
He will either encourage me to continue my favorite activities, or make me burn everything I started"[24].
Having received the manuscript of "Childhood", the editor of" Sovremennik " N. A. Nekrasov immediately recognized its literary value and wrote a kind letter to the author, which had a very encouraging effect on him.
In a letter to I. S. Turgenev, Nekrasov noted: "This is a new talent and seems to be reliable"[25].
The manuscript of an as yet unknown author was published in September of the same year.
Meanwhile, the novice and inspired author began to continue the tetralogy "Four Epochs of Development", the last part of which — "Youth" — did not take place.
He was thinking over the plot of "The Morning of the Landowner" (the finished story was only a fragment of "The Novel of the Russian Landowner"), "The Raid", "The Cossacks".
Published in Sovremennik on September 18, 1852," Childhood " was an extraordinary success; after publication, the author was immediately ranked among the luminaries of the young literary school, along with I. S. Turgenev, Goncharov, D. V. Grigorovich, Ostrovsky, who were already enjoying loud literary fame at that time.
Critics Apollo Grigoriev, Annenkov, Druzhinin, Chernyshevsky appreciated the depth of psychological analysis, the seriousness of the author's intentions and the bright convexity of realism[9].
The relatively late beginning of the field is very characteristic of Tolstoy: he never considered himself a professional writer, understanding the professional not in the sense of a profession that provides the means to live, but in the sense of the predominance of literary interests.
He did not take the interests of literary parties to heart, reluctantly talked about literature, preferring conversations about issues of faith, morality, and social relations[9].
Military service[edit / edit wiki text]
Stele in memory of L. N. Tolstoy, a participant in the defense of Sevastopol in 1854-1855, at the fourth bastion
As a cadet, Lev Nikolaevich stayed for two years in the Caucasus, where he participated in many skirmishes with the mountaineers led by Shamil, and was exposed to the dangers of military Caucasian life.
He had the right to the St. George Cross, but in accordance with his beliefs, he "conceded" it to a fellow soldier, considering that a significant relief of the conditions of service of a colleague is above personal vanity.
With the beginning of the Crimean War, Tolstoy transferred to the Danube Army, participated in the Battle of Oltenitsa and in the siege of Silistria, and from November 1854 to the end of August 1855 was in Sevastopol[9].
For a long time he lived on the 4th bastion, which was often attacked, commanded a battery in the Battle of Chernaya, was bombed during the assault on Malakhov Kurgan.
Tolstoy, despite all the hardships of life and the horrors of the siege, at that time wrote the story "Cutting the Forest", which reflected Caucasian impressions, and the first of three "Sevastopol stories" — "Sevastopol in December 1854".
He sent this story to Sovremennik.
It was quickly published and read with interest by the whole of Russia, making a stunning impression with a picture of the horrors that fell to the lot of the defenders of Sevastopol.
The story was noticed by the Russian Emperor Alexander II[26][K 4]; he ordered to take care of the gifted officer[9].
Even during the life of Emperor Nicholas I, Tolstoy intended to publish together with the artillery officers the "cheap and popular "magazine" Military Leaf", but Tolstoy failed to implement the magazine project: "My Sovereign Emperor most graciously deigned to allow our articles to be published in the Invalid," Tolstoy bitterly ironized about this [26].
For being during the bombing on the Yazonovsky redoubt of the fourth bastion, composure and efficiency.
— From the presentation to the Order of St. Anna of the 4th art. [27]
The project of the cover of the unrealized edition of Leo Tolstoy, 1854
For the defense of Sevastopol, Tolstoy was awarded the Order of St. Anna of the 4th degree with the inscription "For Bravery", the medals "For the Defense of Sevastopol 1854-1855" and "In memory of the war of 1853-1856".
Subsequently, he was awarded two [28] medals "In memory of the 50th anniversary of the defense of Sevastopol": silver as a participant in the defense of Sevastopol and bronze as the author of "Sevastopol stories" [29].
Tolstoy, enjoying the reputation of a brave officer and surrounded by the brilliance of fame, had every chance of a career.
Nevertheless, his career was spoiled by writing several satirical songs, stylized as soldiers ' songs.
One of these songs was dedicated to the failure during the battle of the Chernaya River on August 4 (16), 1855, when General Read, having misunderstood the commander in chief's order, attacked Fedyukhin heights.
The song entitled "As on the fourth day, we were not easy to take away the mountains", which touched a number of important generals, was a huge success.
For her, Lev Nikolaevich had to answer to the assistant Chief of Staff A. A. Yakimakh.
Immediately after the assault on August 27 (September 8), Tolstoy was sent by courier to St. Petersburg, where he finished "Sevastopol in May 1855" and wrote "Sevastopol in August 1855", published in the first issue of "Sovremennik" for 1856 with the author's full signature.
"Sevastopol stories" finally strengthened his reputation as a representative of a new literary generation, and in November 1856, the writer left military service forever[9] with the rank of lieutenant.
Travel in Europe[edit / edit wiki text]
In St. Petersburg, the young writer was warmly welcomed in high society salons and in literary circles.
He became closest friends with I. S. Turgenev, with whom they lived in the same apartment for some time.
Turgenev introduced him to the Sovremennik circle, after which Tolstoy established friendly relations with such famous writers as N. A. Nekrasov, I. S. Goncharov, I. I. Panaev, D. V. Grigorovich, A.V. Druzhinin, V. A. Sollogub[9].
At this time, "Blizzard", "Two Hussars" were written, "Sevastopol in August" and "Youth" were completed, the writing of future "Cossacks"was continued[19].
However, a cheerful and eventful life left a bitter residue in Tolstoy's soul, at the same time he began to have a strong discord with a circle of writers close to him.
As a result," people were disgusted with him, and he was disgusted with himself " — and at the beginning of 1857, Tolstoy left St. Petersburg without any regret and went on a trip[9].
On his first trip abroad, he visited Paris, where he was horrified by the cult of Napoleon I ("The deification of the villain, terrible"), at the same time he visited balls, museums, admired the "sense of social freedom".
However, the presence at the guillotining made such a heavy impression that Tolstoy left Paris and went to places associated with the French writer and thinker J.-J.
Rousseau on Lake Geneva.
In the spring of 1857, I. S. Turgenev described his meetings with Leo Tolstoy in Paris in the following way after his sudden departure from St. Petersburg:
"Indeed, Paris is not at all in harmony with his spiritual system; he is a strange person, I have not met such people and I do not quite understand.
A mixture of a poet, a Calvinist, a fanatic, a barich — something reminiscent of Rousseau, but more honest than Rousseau — a highly moral and at the same time unsympathetic being."
- I. S. Turgenev, Full of collected works and letters.
Letters, vol .
III, p .
52.
Trips to Western Europe — Germany, France, England, Switzerland, Italy (in 1857 and 1860-1861) made a rather negative impression on him.
He expressed his disappointment in the European way of life in the story "Lucerne".
Tolstoy's disappointment was caused by the deep contrast between wealth and poverty, which he was able to see through the magnificent external cover of European culture[9].
Lev Nikolaevich is writing the novel "Albert".
At the same time, friends do not cease to be surprised by his eccentricities: in his letter to I. S. Turgenev in the autumn of 1857, P. V. Annenkov told Tolstoy's project for planting forests throughout Russia, and in his letter to V. P. Botkin, Leo Tolstoy reported how he was very glad that he did not become only a writer against Turgenev's advice.
However, in the interval between the first and second trips, the writer continued working on "The Cossacks", wrote the story "Three Deaths" and the novel "Family Happiness".
On the day of the photography of the writers of Sovremennik, Levitsky made separate portraits of each writer in his studio.
Tolstoy is wearing the uniform of a participant in the Crimean War
Russian writers of the circle of the magazine "Sovremennik": I. A. Goncharov, I. S. Turgenev, L. N. Tolstoy, D. V. Grigorovich, A.V. Druzhinin and A. N. Ostrovsky.
February 15, 1856 Photo by S. L. Levitsky
His last novel was published in the" Russian Bulletin " by Mikhail Katkov.
Tolstoy's collaboration with the magazine Sovremennik, which lasted from 1852, ended in 1859.
In the same year, Tolstoy took part in the organization of the Literary Fund.
But his life was not limited to literary interests: on December 22, 1858, he almost died on a bear hunt.
Around the same time, he began an affair with a peasant woman Aksinya Bazykina[30], plans for marriage are maturing.
On his next trip, he was mainly interested in public education and institutions aimed at raising the educational level of the working population.
He carefully studied the issues of public education in Germany and France, both theoretically and practically — in conversations with specialists.
Of the outstanding people in Germany, he was most interested in Bertold Auerbach as the author of the "Black Forest Stories" devoted to folk life and as the publisher of folk calendars.
Tolstoy paid him a visit and tried to get closer to him.
In addition, he also met with the German teacher Disterweg.
During his stay in Brussels, Tolstoy met Proudhon and Lelevel.
In London, he visited A. I. Herzen, was at a lecture by Charles Dickens[9].
Tolstoy's serious mood during his second trip to the south of France was also facilitated by the fact that his beloved brother Nikolai died of tuberculosis almost on his hands.
The death of his brother made a huge impression on Tolstoy[9].
Gradually, criticism cools down to Leo Tolstoy for 10-12 years, until the very appearance of "War and Peace"[9], and he himself did not strive for rapprochement with writers, making an exception only for Athanasius Fet.
One of the reasons for this estrangement was the quarrel between Leo Tolstoy and Turgenev, which occurred at a time when both prose writers were visiting Fet at the Stepanovka estate in May 1861.
The quarrel almost ended in a duel and spoiled the relationship between the writers for a long 17 years[31].
Treatment in the Bashkir nomad Karalyk[edit / edit wiki text]
In May 1862, Lev Nikolaevich, suffering from depression[32], on the recommendation of doctors, went to the Bashkir farm Karalyk, Samara province, to be treated with a new and fashionable method of kumis treatment at that time.
Initially, he was going to stay in Postnikov's kumysolechebnitsa near Samara, but after learning that many high ranking officials were coming at the same time (a secular society that the young count could not stand), he went to the Bashkir nomad Karalyk, on the Karalyk River, 130 versts from Samara.
There Tolstoy lived in Bashkirskaya in a kibitka (yurt), he ate mutton, took sun baths, drank kumis, tea, and also had fun with the Bashkirs playing checkers.
The first time he stayed there for a month and a half.
In 1871, when he had already written "War and Peace", he returned there again due to poor health.
He wrote about his impressions as follows: "The melancholy and indifference have passed, I feel myself coming to the Scythian state, and everything is interesting and new…
Many things are new and interesting: Bashkirs, who smell of Herodotus, and Russian peasants, and villages, especially charming for the simplicity and kindness of the people"[33].
Fascinated by Karalyk, Tolstoy bought an estate in these places, and already spent the summer of the following year, 1872, together with the whole family in it[33].
Pedagogical activity[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: The pedagogical teaching of L. N. Tolstoy
Tolstoy's second magazine was more successful than the "Military Leaflet", but it was published only for one year
L. N. Tolstoy, 1862.
Photo by M. B. Tulinov.
Moscow.
In 1859, even before the liberation of the peasants, Tolstoy was actively engaged in the establishment of schools in his Yasnaya Polyana and in the entire Krapivensky district[34].
The Yasnaya Polyana school was one of the original pedagogical experiments: in the era of admiration for the German pedagogical school, Tolstoy resolutely rebelled against any regulation and discipline in the school.
According to him, everything in teaching should be individual — both the teacher and the student, and their mutual relations.
In the Yasnaya Polyana school, the children sat where they wanted, who wanted as much as they wanted and who wanted as they wanted.
There was no specific teaching program.
The teacher's only task was to interest the class.
The classes were successful.
They were conducted by Tolstoy himself with the help of several permanent teachers and several random ones from his closest acquaintances and visitors[9].
Since 1862, Tolstoy began to publish the pedagogical magazine "Yasnaya Polyana", where he himself was the main employee.
Without experiencing the vocation of a publisher, Tolstoy managed to publish only 12 issues of the magazine, the last of which appeared with a lag in 1863[35].
In addition to theoretical articles, he also wrote a number of short stories, fables and transcriptions adapted for elementary school.
Combined together, Tolstoy's pedagogical articles made up a whole volume of his collected works.
At the time, they went unnoticed.
No one paid attention to the sociological basis of Tolstoy's ideas about education, to the fact that Tolstoy saw only simplified and improved ways of exploiting the people by the upper classes in education, science, art and the success of technology.
Moreover, from Tolstoy's attacks on European education and "progress", many have concluded that Tolstoy is a "conservative"[9].
Soon Tolstoy left teaching classes.
Marriage, the birth of his own children, plans related to the writing of the novel "War and Peace", pushed his pedagogical activities for ten years.
Only in the early 1870s he began to create his own " Abc "and published it in 1872, and then published the "New Alphabet" and a series of four "Russian books for reading"[36], approved as a result of long ordeals by the Ministry of Public Education as manuals for primary educational institutions.
In the early 1870s, educational classes at the Yasnaya Polyana school were restored again for a short time[37][38].
The experience of the Yasnaya Polyana school was later useful to some domestic teachers.
So S. T. Shatsky, creating his own school colony "Cheerful Life" in 1911, started from the experiments of Leo Tolstoy in the field of pedagogy of cooperation[38].
Public activity in the 1860s[edit / edit wiki text]
Upon returning from the Euro
