Moon
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This term has other meanings, see Moon (meanings).
Moon
Orbital characteristics Perigee 363 104 km
(356 400 – 370 400 km)
Apogee 405 696 km
(404 000 – 406 700 km)
Large semi axis (a) 384 399 km
0.00257 a.
e.
The eccentricity of the orbit (e) is 0.0549 (average)[1]
Sidereal circulation period is 27.321582 days
27 d 7 h 43.1 min
The synodic period of treatment is 29.530588 days
29 d 12 h 44.0 min
Orbital velocity (v) 1,023 km/s (average)[1]
Inclination (i) 5,145° relative to the ecliptic
Longitude of the ascending node (Ω) (decreasing) 1 turnover for 18.6 years
The argument of the pericenter (ω) (increasing) 1 turnover in 8.85 years
Whose satellite is the Earth
Physical characteristics Polar compression 0.00125
The equatorial radius is 1738.14 km
0.273 earth units
The polar radius is 1735.97 km
0.273 earth units
The average radius is 1737.10 km
0.273 earth units
The circumference of the great circle is 10,917 km
Surface area (S) 3,793·107 km2
0.074 earth units
Volume (V) 2,1958·1010 km3
0.020 earth units
Weight (m) 7,3477·1022 kg
0.0123 earth units
The average density (p) is 3.3464 g / cm3
The acceleration of gravity at the equator (g) is 1.62 m/s2
0,165 g
The first cosmic speed (v1) is 1.68 km / s
The second cosmic speed (v2) is 2.38 km / s
The rotation period (T) is synchronized (always turned to the Ground with one side)
The inclination of the axis is 1.5424° (relative to the plane of the ecliptic)
Albedo 0.12
Apparent magnitude -2.5/-12.9
-12.74 (with a full moon)
Temperature
min. of environments.
max.
Temperature[source not specified 331 days] 100 K (-173 °C) 220 K (-53 °C) 390 K (117 °C)
At the equator 33 K (-240 °C) 130 K (-143 °C) 230 K (-43 °C)
Atmosphere
Composition: extremely sparse, there are traces of hydrogen, helium, neon and argon[2] Information in Wikidata
The moon is a natural satellite of the Earth.
The closest satellite of the planet to the Sun, since the planets closest to the Sun, Mercury and Venus, have no satellites.
The second brightest[comm. 1] an object in the Earth's firmament after the Sun and the fifth largest natural satellite of a planet in the Solar system.
The average distance between the centers of the Earth and the Moon is 384,467 km (0.002 57 AU, ~ 30 diameters of the Earth).
The apparent magnitude of the full Moon in the Earth's sky is 12.71 m[3].
The illumination created by the full Moon near the Earth's surface in clear weather is 0.25-1 lux.
The moon is the only astronomical object outside the Earth that a person has visited.
Content
1 Name 2 The moon as a celestial body 2.1 Orbit 2.2 General structure 2.2.1 Conditions on the surface
2.3 Gravitational field 2.3.1 Tides on the Earth
2.4 Magnetic field 2.5 Observation
3 Selenology 3.1 Caves 3.2 Seismology 3.3 Water Availability
4 Rock chemistry 5 Selenography 5.1 Origin of craters 5.2 "Seas" 5.3 Internal structure
6 Map 7 Origin 8 Research 9 Development 9.1 International legal status 9.2 Colonization 9.3 Questionable Transactions
10 In Art and culture 10.1 In Culture
11 The illusion of the Moon 12 Short term phenomena 13 Influence on a person 14 Literature 15 Notes 16 References
Title[edit / edit wiki text]
The Russian word Moon goes back to praslav.
* luna < pra I. E. * louksnā "light" (zh. r. of the adjective * louksnós), the Latin lūna "moon" also ascends to the same Indo European form[4].
The Greeks called the satellite of the Earth — Selena (other Greek: ΣελνΝη), the ancient Egyptians Yah (Iyah)[5], the Babylonians Sin[6].
The moon as a celestial body[edit / edit wiki text]
Orbit[edit / edit wiki text]
Since ancient times, people have tried to describe and explain the movement of the moon.
Over time, more and more accurate theories appeared.
The basis of modern calculations is the Brown theory.
Created at the turn of the XIX XX centuries, it described the movement of the Moon with the accuracy of measuring instruments of that time.
At the same time, more than 1400 terms (coefficients and arguments for trigonometric functions) were used in the calculation.
Modern science can calculate the motion of the moon and verify these calculations with even greater accuracy.
Using laser location methods, the distance to the moon is measured with an error of several centimeters[7].
Not only measurements have such accuracy, but also theoretical predictions of the position of the Moon; expressions with tens of thousands of terms are used for such calculations and there is no limit to their number if even higher accuracy is required.
In the first approximation, we can assume that the Moon moves in an elliptical orbit with an eccentricity of 0.0549 and a large semi axis of 384,399 km.
The actual motion of the Moon is quite complex, many factors must be taken into account when calculating it, for example, the flatness of the Earth and the strong influence of the Sun, which attracts the Moon 2.2 times stronger than the Earth[comm. 2].
More precisely, the movement of the Moon around the Earth can be represented as a combination of several movements[8]:
the orbit around the Earth in an elliptical orbit with a period of 27.32166 days, this is the so called sidereal month (that is, the movement is measured relative to the stars); the rotation of the plane of the lunar orbit: its nodes (the points of intersection of the orbit with the ecliptic) shift to the west, making a complete revolution in 18.6 years.
This movement is precessional; rotation of the major axis of the lunar orbit (apse line) with a period of 8.8 years (occurs in the opposite direction than the above movement of nodes, that is, the longitude of the perigee increases); periodic change in the inclination of the lunar orbit with respect to the ecliptic from 4°59' to 5°19'; periodic change in the size of the lunar orbit: perigee from 356.41 to 369.96 thousand km, apogee from 404.18 to 406.74 thousand km.
the Moon is gradually moving away from the Earth due to tidal acceleration (by about 4 cm per year), so its orbit is a slowly unwinding spiral[9].
General structure[edit / edit wiki text]
The moon consists of the crust, the upper mantle (asthenosphere), the middle mantle, the lower mantle and the core.
The atmosphere is practically absent.
The surface of the Moon is covered with the so — called regolith a mixture of fine dust and rocky debris formed as a result of collisions of meteorites with the lunar surface.
The shock explosive processes accompanying the meteor bombardment contribute to the loosening and mixing of the soil, simultaneously sintering and compacting the soil particles.
The thickness of the regolith layer ranges from fractions of a meter to tens of meters[10].
The thickness of the Moon's crust varies widely from 0 to 105 km[11].
According to data from the GRAIL gravitational reconnaissance satellites, the thickness of the lunar crust is greater on the hemisphere that faces the Earth[12].
Conditions on the surface[edit / edit wiki text]
The moon's atmosphere is extremely thin.
When the surface is not illuminated by the Sun, the gas content above it does not exceed 2.0·105 particles/cm3 (for the Earth, this indicator is 2.7·1019 particles/cm3), and after sunrise it increases by two orders of magnitude due to soil degassing.
The rarefaction of the atmosphere leads to a high temperature difference on the surface of the Moon (from -160 °C to +120 °C)[the source is not specified 1799 days], depending on the illumination; at the same time, the temperature of rocks lying at a depth of 1 m is constant and equal to -35 °C.
Due to the practical lack of atmosphere, the sky on the Moon is always black, with stars, even when the Sun is above the horizon.
In daytime photos, the stars are not visible, since the exposure level that would allow their display would completely spoil a significant part of the photo with the Sun's radiance.
In the case of shading the Sun, the stars are perfectly visible.
"On the moon.
The Earth rises. "
Postage stamp of the USSR, 1967
The Earth's disk hangs almost motionless in the moon's sky.
The reasons for small monthly fluctuations of the Earth in height above the lunar horizon and in azimuth (approximately 7°) the same as the libratii.
The angular size of the Earth when observed from the Moon is 3.7 times larger than the lunar size when observed from the Earth, and the area of the celestial sphere covered by the Earth is 13.5 times larger than that covered by the Moon.
The degree of illumination of the Earth visible from the Moon is the opposite of the lunar phases visible on Earth: during the full moon, the unlit part of the Earth is visible from the Moon, and vice versa.
The illumination by the reflected light of the Earth is about 50 times [source not specified 215 days] stronger than the illumination by moonlight on Earth, the maximum apparent magnitude of the Earth on the Moon is approximately 16m.
Gravitational field[edit / edit wiki text]
Coefficients of sector and tesseral harmonics[13] C3,1 = 0.000030803810 S3,1 = 0.000004259329 C3,2 = 0.000004879807 S3,2 = 0.000001695516 C3,3 = 0.000001770176 S3,3 =-0.000000270970 C4,1 =-0.000007177801 S4,1 = 0.000002947434 C4,2 =-0.000001439518 S4,2 =-0.000002884372 C4,3 =-0.000000085479 S4,3 =-0.000000718967 C4,4 =-0.000000154904 S4,4 = 0.000000053404
The gravitational potential of the Moon is traditionally written as the sum of three terms[14]:
W = V + Q + δ W ,
{\displaystyle W=V+Q+\delta W,}
where δW is the tidal potential, Q is the centrifugal potential, V is the attraction potential.
The potential of attraction is usually decomposed according to zonal, sectoral and tesseral harmonics:
V
=
G M
r
( 1 −
∑
n = 2
∞
J
n
(
R r
)
n
P
n
( sin ⁡ θ )
+
∑
n = 2
∞
∑
m = 1
n
(
R r
)
n
(
C
n m
cos ⁡ m λ +
S
n m
sin ⁡ m λ )
P
n
m
( sin ⁡ θ ) )
,
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}V&={\frac {GM}{r}}\left(1-\sum _{n=2}^{\infty }J_{n}\left({\frac {R}{r}}\right)^{n}P_{n}(\sin \theta )\right.
\\&+\left.
\sum _{n=2}^{\infty }\sum _{m=1}^{n}\left({\frac {R}{r}}\right)^{n}(C_{nm}\cos m\lambda +S_{nm}\sin m\lambda )P_{n}^{m}(\sin \theta )\right),\\\end{aligned}}}
where Pnm is the attached Legendre polynomial, G is the gravitational constant, M is the mass of the Moon, λ and θ are longitude and latitude.
Tides and ebbs on the Earth[edit / edit wiki text]
Main articles: Tide and ebb, Tidal forces
The gravitational influence of the Moon causes some interesting effects on the Earth The most famous of them is the sea tides.
On the opposite sides of the Earth, two bulges are formed (in the first approximation) — from the side facing the Moon, and from the opposite side.
In the world ocean, this effect is much more pronounced than in the solid crust (the bulge of the water is greater).
The amplitude of the tides (the difference between the levels of high and low tide) in the open spaces of the ocean is small and is 30-40 cm.
However, near the coast, due to the raid on the solid bottom, the tidal wave increases the height in the same way as ordinary wind waves of the surf.
Taking into account the direction of the Moon's rotation around the Earth, it is possible to make a picture of the tidal wave following the ocean.
Strong tides are more susceptible to the eastern coasts of the continents.
The maximum amplitude of a tidal wave on Earth is observed in the Bay of Fundy in Canada and is 18 meters.
Although the magnitude of the Sun's gravitational force for the globe is almost 200 times greater than the gravitational force of the Moon, the tidal forces generated by the Moon are almost twice as large as those generated by the Sun.
This is due to the fact that tidal forces depend not only on the magnitude of the gravitational field, but also on the degree of its inhomogeneity.
As the distance from the field source increases, the inhomogeneity decreases faster than the value of the field itself.
Since the Sun is almost 400 times farther from the Earth than the Moon, the tidal forces caused by solar attraction are weaker[15].
Magnetic field[edit / edit wiki text]
It is believed that the source of the magnetic field of the planets is tectonic activity.
For example, for Earth, the field is created by the movement of molten metal in the core, for Mars — by the consequences of past activity.
"Luna 1" in 1959 established the absence of a uniform magnetic field on the Moon[16]: 24.
The results of research by scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology confirm the hypothesis that it had a liquid core.
This fits into the framework of the most popular hypothesis of the origin of the Moon — the collision of the Earth about 4.5 billion years ago with a cosmic body the size of Mars "knocked out" a huge piece of molten matter from the Earth, which later turned into the Moon.
Experimentally, it was possible to prove that at the early stage of its existence, the Moon had a magnetic field similar to that of the Earth[17].
Observation[edit / edit wiki text]
Main articles: Moon Phases, Libration, Eclipse, Astronomical Refraction, Supermoon
The relationship of the phases of the Moon with its position relative to the Sun and the Earth.
The green color indicates the angle by which the Moon will turn from the end of the sidereal month to the end of the synodic month.
In the southern hemisphere, the moon is inverted, as in this Australian picture.
The angular diameter of the moon is very close to the solar one and is about half a degree.
The lunar surface is characterized by low reflectivity and reflects only 5-18 % of sunlight; color differences on the moon are extremely small.
Its surface has a brownish gray or blackish brown color.[18]
Since the Moon does not glow itself, but only reflects sunlight, only the part of the lunar surface illuminated by the Sun is visible from the Earth (in the phases of the Moon close to the new moon, that is, at the beginning of the first quarter and at the end of the last quarter, with a very narrow sickle, you can observe the "ashen light of the Moon" — weak illumination by the Sun rays reflected from the Earth).
The moon orbits the Earth, and thus the angle between the Earth, the Moon and the Sun changes; we observe this phenomenon as a cycle of lunar phases.
The period of time between successive new moons averages 29.5 days (709 hours) and is called the synodic month.
The fact that the duration of the synodic month is longer than the sidereal one is explained by the movement of the Earth around the Sun: when the Moon makes a complete revolution around the Earth relative to the stars, the Earth has already passed 1/13 of its orbit by this time, and for the Moon to be between the Earth and the Sun again, it needs an additional two days.
Lunar librations
Although the Moon rotates around its axis, it always faces the Earth with the same side, that is, the Moon's rotation around the Earth and rotation around its own axis are synchronized.
This synchronization is caused by the friction of the tides produced by the Earth in the shell of the Moon[19].
According to the laws of mechanics, The moon is oriented in the gravitational field of the Earth so that the large semi axis of the lunar ellipsoid is directed at the Earth.
The libration phenomenon, discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1635, allows us to observe about 59 % of the lunar surface.
The fact is that the Moon orbits the Earth with a variable angular velocity due to the eccentricity of the lunar orbit (it moves faster near the perigee, slower near the apogee), while the rotation of the satellite around its own axis is uniform.
This allows you to see from the Earth the western and eastern edges of the reverse side of the Moon (optical libration in longitude).
In addition, due to the inclination of the axis of rotation of the Moon to the plane of the Earth's orbit, the northern and southern edges of the reverse side of the Moon can be seen from the Earth (optical libration in latitude).
There is also a physical libration caused by the oscillation of the satellite around the equilibrium position due to the shifted center of gravity, as well as due to the action of tidal forces from the Earth.
This physical libration has a value of 0.02° in longitude with a period of 1 year and 0.04° in latitude with a period of 6 years.
Due to refraction in the Earth's atmosphere, when the Moon is observed low above the horizon, its disk is flattened.
The time (1.255 seconds) for which the light emitted from the Earth reaches the Moon.
The drawing is made in scale.
Due to the irregularities of the relief on the surface of the Moon during a total solar eclipse, Bailey's rosary can be observed.
When, on the contrary, the Moon falls into the Earth's shadow, another optical effect can be observed: it turns red, being illuminated by light scattered in the Earth's atmosphere.
A "supermoon" is an astronomical phenomenon in which the moment when the Moon passes perigee coincides with its full phase.
The term "micromoon" is less common, when the Moon in its full phase is at its apogee, that is, at the farthest point of its orbit around the Earth.
For an Earth observer, the angular size of the Moon's disk at the time of the "supermoon "is 14% larger and its brightness is 30% higher than at the time of the"micromoon".
Selenology[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Mineralogy of the Moon
A radial gravitational anomaly on the surface of the moon.
Due to its size and composition, the Moon is sometimes referred to as the planets of the Earth group along with Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
By studying the geological structure of the Moon, you can learn a lot about the structure and development of the Earth.
The thickness of the Moon's crust averages 68 km, varying from 0 km under the lunar sea of Crises to 107 km in the northern part of the Korolev crater on the reverse side.
Under the crust is the mantle and, possibly, a small core of sulfurous iron (with a radius of approximately 340 km and a mass of 2 % of the mass of the Moon).
It is interesting that the center of mass of the Moon is located about 2 km from the geometric center in the direction of the Earth.
According to the results of the Kaguya mission, it was found that the crust thickness in the Moscow Sea is the smallest for the entire Moon[20] — almost 0 meters under a layer of basalt lava 600 meters thick[21].
Measurements of the speed of the Lunar Orbiter satellites made it possible to create a gravitational map of the Moon.
With its help, unique lunar objects were discovered, called mascons — from the English mass concentration) - these are masses of high density matter.
The moon does not have a magnetic field, although some of the rocks on its surface show residual magnetism, which indicates the possibility of the existence of a magnetic field of the Moon in the early stages of development.
Having neither an atmosphere nor a magnetic field, the surface of the moon is directly affected by the solar wind.
For 4 billion years, hydrogen ions from the solar wind were introduced into the regolith of the Moon.
Thus, the regolith samples delivered by the Apollo missions turned out to be very valuable for the study of the solar wind.
In February 2012, American astronomers discovered several geological neoplasms on the far side of the moon.
This indicates that the lunar tectonic processes continued for at least another 950 million years after the estimated date of the geological "death" of the Moon[22].
Caves[edit / edit wiki text]
The Japanese Kaguya probe has discovered a hole in the surface of the Moon, located near the volcanic plateau of the Marius Hills, presumably leading to a tunnel under the surface.
The diameter of the hole is about 65 meters, and the depth is presumably 80 meters[23].
Scientists believe that such tunnels are formed by solidification of flows of molten rock, where lava has frozen in the center.
These processes occurred during the period of volcanic activity on the Moon.
Confirmation of this theory is the presence of sinuous furrows on the surface of the satellite[23].
Such tunnels can serve for colonization, thanks to protection from solar radiation and the closeness of space, in which it is easier to maintain life support conditions[23].
There are similar holes on Mars.
Seismology[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Moonshake
Four seismographs left on the Moon by the Apollo 12, Apollo 14, Apollo 15 and Apollo 16 expeditions showed the presence of seismic activity[24].
Based on the latest calculations of scientists, the lunar core consists mainly of red hot iron[25].
Due to the lack of water, the fluctuations of the lunar surface are long in time, can last more than an hour.
Moonshakes can be divided into four groups:
tidal, occur twice a month, caused by the influence of tidal forces of the Sun and the Earth; tectonic irregular, caused by movements in the ground of the Moon; meteoritic due to the fall of meteorites; thermal their cause is a sharp heating of the lunar surface with sunrise.
The greatest danger for possible habitable stations is represented by tectonic lunar earthquakes.
NASA seismographs for 5 years of research have recorded 28 similar lunar tremors.
Some of them reach 5.5 points on the Richter scale and last more than 10 minutes.
For comparison, on Earth, such earthquakes last no more than two minutes[26][27].
The presence of water[edit / edit wiki text]
For the first time, information about the discovery of water on the Moon was published in 1978 by Soviet researchers in the journal Geochemistry.
This fact was established as a result of the analysis of samples delivered by the Luna 24 probe in 1976.
The percentage of water found in the sample was 0.1[28].
In July 2008, a group of American geologists from the Carnegie Institute and Brown University found traces of water in samples of the Moon's soil, which was released in large quantities from the bowels of the satellite at the early stages of its existence.
Later, most of this water evaporated into space[29].
Russian scientists, using the LEND instrument they created, installed on the LRO probe, have identified the areas of the Moon that are most rich in hydrogen.
Based on these data, NASA chose a place to conduct a bombardment of the Moon by the LCROSS probe[30].
After the experiment, on November 13, 2009, NASA reported the discovery of water in the form of ice in the Cabeus crater near the south pole [31].
According to the data transmitted by the Mini SAR radar installed on the Indian lunar vehicle Chandrayan 1, at least 600 million tons of water were detected in the North Pole region, most of which is in the form of ice blocks resting on the bottom of lunar craters.
In total, water was found in more than 40 craters, the diameter of which varies from 2 to 15 km.
Now scientists have no doubt that the found ice is exactly water ice[32].
Chemistry of rocks[edit / edit wiki text]
The composition of the lunar soil differs significantly in the marine and continental regions of the Moon.
Lunar rocks are depleted of iron, water and volatile components.
Map of the concentration of thorium on the surface of the Moon according to Lunar Prospector data.
The chemical composition of the lunar regolith as a percentage[33].
Elements Delivered By "Moon 20" Delivered by "Moon 16" Si 20.0 20.0 Ti 0.28 1.9 Al 12.5 8.7 Cr 0.11 0.20 Fe 5.1 13.7 Mg 5.7 5.3 Ca 10.3 9.2 Na 0.26 0.32 K 0.05 0.12
AMS " Luna 20 "delivered soil from the mainland area," Luna 16 " from the sea[34].
Selenography[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Selenography
The main details on the lunar disk, visible to the naked eye.
Z — "Moon hare", A Tycho crater, B Copernicus crater, C Kepler crater, 1 Ocean of Storms, 2 - Sea of Rains, 3 - Sea of Calm, 4 - Sea of Clarity, 5 Sea of Clouds, 6 Sea of Abundance, 7 - Sea of Crises, 8 - Sea of Humidity
The topography of the moon, the height of the surface relative to the lunar geoid.
The side visible from the Ground is on the left.
The surface of the moon can be divided into two types: very old mountainous terrain (lunar continent) and relatively smooth and younger lunar seas.
The lunar "seas", which make up approximately 16% of the entire surface of the Moon, are huge craters that arose as a result of collisions with celestial bodies that were later flooded with liquid lava.
Most of the surface is covered with regolith.
Due to the influence of the gravitational moment during the formation of the Moon, its "seas", under which the lunar probes found denser, heavier rocks, are concentrated on the side of the satellite facing the Earth.
Most of the craters on the side facing us are named after famous people in the history of science, such as Tycho Brahe, Copernicus and Ptolemy.
The details of the relief on the reverse side have more modern names such as Apollo, Gagarin and Korolev.
On the far side of the Moon there is a huge depression (pool) with a diameter of 2250 km and a depth of 12 km — this is the largest pool in the Solar system that appeared as a result of a collision.
The Eastern Sea in the western part of the visible side (it can be seen from the Ground) is an excellent example of a multi ring crater.
There are also minor details of the lunar relief domes, ridges, furrows (from it. Rille furrow, trough) - narrow winding valley like depressions of the relief.
The origin of craters[edit / edit wiki text]
Attempts to explain the origin of craters on the Moon began in the late 1780s.
There were two main hypotheses — volcanic and meteoritic[35].
According to the postulates of the volcanic theory put forward in the 80s of the XVIII century by the German astronomer Johann Schroeter, lunar craters were formed as a result of powerful eruptions on the surface.
But in 1824, the German astronomer Franz von Gruytuizen also formulated a meteorite theory, according to which, when a celestial body collides with the Moon, the satellite's surface is pushed through and a crater is formed.
An impact crater is a depression that appeared on the surface of a cosmic body as a result of the fall of another smaller body.
Until the 20s of the XX century, the fact that the craters have a round shape was put forward against the meteorite hypothesis, although there should be more oblique impacts on the surface than straight ones, which means that with a meteorite origin, the craters should have the shape of an ellipse.
However, in 1924, the New Zealand scientist Gifford for the first time gave a qualitative description of the impact of a meteorite moving at cosmic speed on the surface of the planet.
It turned out that with such an impact, most of the meteorite evaporates along with the rock at the impact site, and the shape of the crater does not depend on the angle of incidence.
The meteorite hypothesis is also supported by the fact that the dependence of the number of lunar craters on their diameter and the dependence of the number of meteor bodies on their size coincide.
In 1937, this theory was brought to a generalized scientific form by a Soviet student Kirill Petrovich Stanyukovich, who later became a doctor of sciences and a professor.
The "explosive theory" was developed by him and a group of scientists from 1947 to 1960, and was further refined by other researchers.
The flights to the Earth's satellite since 1964, made by the American Ranger spacecraft, as well as the discovery of craters on other planets of the Solar System (Mars, Mercury, Venus) summed up this age old dispute about the origin of craters on the Moon.
The fact is that open volcanic craters (for example, on Venus) are very different from lunar ones, similar to craters on Mercury, which, in turn, were formed by impacts of celestial bodies.
Therefore, the meteorite theory is now considered generally accepted.
Thanks to the collision of the Moon with an asteroid, we can observe meteorite craters on the Moon from the Earth.
Scientists from the Paris Institute of Earth Physics believe that 3.9 billion years ago, the collision of the Moon with a large asteroid caused the moon to turn[36].
"Seas"[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Lunar Seas
The lunar seas are vast, once filled with basalt lava lowlands.
Initially, these formations were considered ordinary seas.
Later, when this was refuted, they did not change the name.
Lunar seas occupy about 40 % of the visible area of the moon.
Visible side of the Moon
The reverse side of the Moon
Russian name international name [37] Sea of Crises (Dangers) Mare Crisium Sea of Fertility (Abundance) Mare Foecunditatis Sea of Nectar Mare Nectaris Sea of Tranquility Mare Tranquillitatis Sea Of Foam Mare Spumans Sea Of Clarity Mare Serenitatis Sea Of Rain Mare Imbrium Sea Of Cold Mare Frigorum Sea Of Vapors Mare Vaporum Sea Of Clouds Mare Nubium Sea Of Humidity Mare Humorum Sea Of Smith Mare Smythii Sea Of the East Mare Orientalis Sea Of Moscow Mare Mosquae Marginal Sea Mare Marginis Sea Of The South Mare Australe Sea Dreams Mare Ingenii Ocean of Storms Oceanus Procellarum Central Bay Sinus Medium Bay of Heat (Excitement) Sinus Aestuum Dew Bay Sinus Roris Rainbow Bay Sinus Iridum
Internal structure[edit / edit wiki text]
The inner structure of the Moon
The moon is a differentiated body, it has a geochemically different crust, mantle and core.
The shell of the inner core is rich in iron, it has a radius of 240 km, the liquid outer core consists mainly of liquid iron with a radius of about 300-330 kilometers.
A partially molten boundary layer with a radius of about 480-500 kilometers is located around the core[38].
This structure is believed to have appeared as a result of fractional crystallization from the global magma ocean shortly after the formation of the Moon 4.5 billion years ago[39].
The lunar crust has an average thickness of ~ 50 km.
The moon is the second most dense satellite in the Solar system after Io.
However, the inner core of the Moon is small, its radius is about 350 km; this is only ~ 20 % of the size of the Moon, unlike ~ 50% of most other Earth like bodies.
The lunar core consists of iron, with a small amount of sulfur and nickel impurities[source not specified 1964 days].
Map[edit / edit wiki text]
The lunar landscape is peculiar and unique.
The moon is completely covered with craters of various sizes — from microscopic to hundreds of kilometers in diameter.
For a long time, scientists could not get information about the far side of the moon.
This became possible only with the advent of spacecraft.
Very detailed maps of both hemispheres of the satellite have already been created.
Detailed lunar maps are made in order to prepare for the landing and colonization of the Moon by man in the future — a successful location of lunar bases, telescopes, transport, mineral exploration, etc.
Origin[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: The Origin of the Moon
The orbit of the moon over the past 4.36 billion years
Before scientists received samples of lunar soil, they knew nothing about when and how the Moon was formed.
There were two fundamentally different theories:
The moon and the Earth formed at the same time from a gas and dust cloud;
The moon formed in another place and was subsequently captured by the Earth.
However, new information obtained through a detailed study of samples from the Moon led to the creation of the theory of a Giant collision: 4.36[40] billion years ago, the protoplanet Earth (Gaia) collided with the protoplanet Theia.
The blow fell not in the center, but at an angle (almost tangentially).
As a result, most of the matter of the impacted object and part of the matter of the Earth's mantle were thrown into near Earth orbit.
From these fragments, the proto moon gathered and began to orbit with a radius of about 60,000 km (now ~ 384 thousand km).
As a result of the impact, the Earth received a sharp increase in the speed of rotation (one revolution in 5 hours) and a noticeable tilt of the axis of rotation.
Although this theory also has drawbacks, it is currently considered the main one[41][42].
Confirmation of the theory of the collision of planets on a tangent can be indicated:
The diameter of the Moon's mantle is 80% of the total diameter.
Usually, for such cosmic bodies, it is 50 %.
The mantle of the moon mainly contains rocks.
The protoplanet Theia "stripped" the stone shell from the Earth, which it subsequently attached to itself.
The iron cores of the planets remained intact.
Otherwise, in a direct collision, the planets could completely collapse or the Earth would absorb the iron core of Theia[source not specified 61 days].
According to estimates based on the content of the stable radiogenic isotope of tungsten 182 (resulting from the decay of relatively short lived hafnium 182) in lunar soil samples, in 2005, mineralogists from Germany and the UK determined the age of separation into silicate and metal shells at 4 billion 527 million years (±10 million years)[43], in 2011, its age was determined to be 4.36 billion years (±3 million years)[40], in 2015 — in 4.47 billion years[44], and in 2017 - in 4.51 billion years[45].
Research[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Exploring the Moon
Daedalus (lunar crater).
Diameter: 93 km Depth: 3 km (NASA photo)
The moon has attracted the attention of people since ancient times.
Already in the II century BC , Hipparchus studied the movement of the Moon in the starry sky, determining the inclination of the lunar orbit relative to the ecliptic, the size of the Moon and the distance from the Earth[46], and also revealed a number of features of movement.
The invention of telescopes made it possible to distinguish smaller details of the moon's relief.
One of the first lunar maps was made by Giovanni Riccioli in 1651, he also gave names to large dark areas, calling them "seas", which we still use today.
These toponyms reflected the long standing idea that the weather on the Moon is similar to the earth, and the dark areas were allegedly filled with lunar water, and the light areas were considered land.
However, in 1753, the Croatian astronomer Rujer Boskovic proved that the Moon does not have an atmosphere.
The fact is that when the stars are covered by the Moon, they disappear instantly.
But if the moon had an atmosphere, the stars would fade out gradually.
This indicated that the satellite has no atmosphere.
And in this case, there can be no liquid water on the surface of the Moon, since it would instantly evaporate.
With the light hand of the same Giovanni Riccioli, the craters were given the names of famous scientists: from Plato, Aristotle and Archimedes to Vernadsky, Tsiolkovsky and Pavlov.
A new stage in the study of the Moon was the use of photography in astronomical observations, starting from the middle of the XIX century.
This made it possible to analyze the surface of the Moon in more detail from detailed photographs.
Such photographs were taken, in particular, by Warren de la Rue (1852) and Lewis Rutherford (1865).
In 1881, Pierre Jansen compiled a detailed "Photographic Atlas of the Moon" [source not specified 2154 days].
AMC
With the beginning of the space age, the amount of our knowledge about the Moon has increased significantly.
The composition of the lunar soil became known, scientists received its samples, a map of the reverse side was compiled.
A postal envelope dedicated to the flight of the Luna 3 station, which photographed the far side of the moon for the first time.
For the first time, the Soviet spacecraft Luna 2 reached the Moon on September 13, 1959.
For the first time, it was possible to look at the far side of the Moon in 1959, when the Soviet Luna 3 station flew over it and photographed a part of its surface invisible from Earth.
After the Soviet Luna 24 station delivered samples of lunar soil to Earth in August 1976, the next device — the Japanese Hiten satellite — flew to the Moon only in 1990.
Then two American spacecraft were launched — Clementine in 1994 and Lunar Prospector in 1998.
On September 28, 2003, the European Space Agency launched its first automatic interplanetary station (AMS) "Smart 1".
On September 14, 2007, Japan launched the second AMS for exploring the Moon "Kaguya".
And on October 24, 2007, China also entered the lunar race — the first Chinese satellite of the Moon, Chang'e 1, was launched.
With the help of this and the next stations, scientists create a three dimensional map of the lunar surface, which in the future may contribute to an ambitious project of colonization of the Moon[47].
On October 22, 2008, the first Indian AMC "Chandrayan 1"was launched.
In 2010, China launched the second AMC "Chang'e 2".
The landing site of the Apollo 17 expedition.
Visible: the descent module, ALSEP research equipment, car wheel tracks and footprints of astronauts.
Image of the LRO spacecraft, September 4, 2011.
On June 18, 2009, NASA launched lunar orbiting probes Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) and Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS).
The satellites are designed to collect information about the lunar surface, search for water and suitable places for future lunar expeditions[48].
For the fortieth anniversary of the Apollo 11 flight, the LRO automatic interplanetary station completed a special task — it took pictures of the landing areas of lunar modules of Earth expeditions.
In the period from July 11 to 15, LRO made and transmitted to Earth the first ever detailed orbital images of the lunar modules themselves, landing pads, equipment elements left by expeditions on the surface, and even traces of a cart, a rover and the earthlings themselves[49].
During this time, 5 of the 6 landing sites were filmed: the Apollo expedition 11, 14, 15, 16, 17[50].
Later, the LRO spacecraft performed even more detailed images of the surface, where not only the landing modules and equipment with traces of the lunar car are clearly visible, but also the footprints of the astronauts themselves[51].
On October 9, 2009, the LCROSS spacecraft and the Centaurus upper stage made a planned fall to the surface of the Moon in the crater Cabeus, located about 100 km from the south pole of the Moon, and therefore constantly in deep shadow.
On November 13, NASA announced that water was detected on the Moon with the help of this experiment[52][53].
In the early 1960s, it was obvious that the United States was lagging behind the USSR in space exploration.
John F. Kennedy said that the landing of a man on the moon will take place before 1970.
To prepare for the manned flight, NASA performed several space programs: Ranger (1961-1965) — photographing the surface, Surveyor (1966-1968) — soft landing and terrain surveys, and Lunar Orbiter (1966-1967) — a detailed image of the lunar surface.
In 1965-1966, there was a NASA MOON BLINK project to study unusual phenomena (anomalies) on the surface of the Moon.
The work was performed by Trident Engineering Associates (Annapolis, Maryland) under contract NAS 5-9613 dated June 1, 1965 with Goddard Space Flight Center (Greenbelt, Maryland)[54][55][56].
Lunokhods
The USSR conducted research on the surface of the Moon using two radio controlled self propelled vehicles, "Lunokhod 1", launched to the Moon in November 1970 and "Lunokhod 2" - in January 1973.
"Lunokhod 1 "worked for 10.5 earth months," Lunokhod 2 " - 4.5 earth months (that is, 5 lunar days and 4 lunar nights), during which it passed 42.1 km[57][58] (as of June 2014, this distance remains a record for extraterrestrial vehicles; in second place is the Opportunity rover, which passed 39.6 km[59]).
Both devices collected and transmitted to Earth a large amount of data about the lunar soil and a lot of photographs of details and panoramas of the lunar terrain[16]: 26.
The lunar landing in December 2013 of the Chinese lunar rover "Yutu" was the first soft landing on the Moon since 1976, after the Soviet AMS Luna 24.
Also, it became the first planetwalker operating on the Moon in more than 40 years, and the PRC is the third power to carry out a soft landing on the Moon, after the USSR and the United States.
Manned flights
See also: Moon Race
The American program of manned flight to the moon was called "Apollo".
The first landing took place on July 20, 1969; the last in December 1972, the first person to set foot on the surface of the Moon on July 21, 1969, was an American Neil Armstrong, the second — Edwin Aldrin; the third crew member Michael Collins remained in the orbital module.
In December 1972, Apollo 17 astronauts Captain Gene Cernan and Dr. Harrison Schmidt became the last (at the moment) people to land on the moon.
Thus, the Moon is the only celestial body that man has visited; and the first celestial body whose samples were delivered to Earth (the USA delivered 380 kilograms, the USSR 324 grams of lunar soil)[60].
Private projects
Private companies are starting to study the moon.
The Google Lunar X PRIZE world competition for the creation of a small lunar rover was announced, in which several teams from different countries participate, including the Russian Selenohod.
There are plans to organize space tourism with flights around the Moon on Russian ships first on the modernized Soyuz ,and then on the promising universal Advanced Manned transport system being developed.
Mastering[edit / edit wiki text]
Edwin Aldrin on the Moon, July 1969 (NASA photo)
International legal status[edit / edit wiki text]
Most of the legal issues of lunar exploration were resolved in 1967 by the Treaty on the Principles of the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies[61].
Also, the legal status of the Moon describes the Agreement on the Moon from 1979.
Colonization[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Colonization of the Moon
The moon is the closest and best studied celestial body and is considered as a candidate for the creation of a human colony.
NASA was developing the Constellation space program, within the framework of which new space technology should be developed and the necessary infrastructure should be created to ensure the flights of a new spacecraft to the ISS, as well as flights to the Moon, the creation of a permanent base on the Moon and, in the future, flights to Mars[62].
However, by the decision of US President Barack Obama on February 1, 2010, funding for the program was discontinued in 2011[63].
In February 2010, NASA presented a new project: "avatars" on the Moon, which can be implemented in 1000 days.
The essence of it is to organize an expedition to the moon with the participation of robot avatars (representing a telepresence device) instead of people.
In this case, the engineers involved in the organization of the flight, save themselves from the need to use important life support systems and thanks to this, a less complex and expensive spacecraft is used.
To control the robot avatars, NASA experts suggest using high tech remote presence suits (like a virtual reality suit).
The same suit can be "put on" by several specialists from different fields of science in turn.
For example, during the study of the features of the lunar surface, a geologist can control the "avatar", and then a physicist can put on a telepresence suit[64].
Russian scientists have identified 14 most likely lunar landing points.
Each of the landing sites has a size of 30×60 km[65].
Future lunar bases are at the experimental stage, in particular, the first successful tests of self sealing of spacecraft in the event of meteorites hitting them have already been carried out[66].
In the future, Russia is going to use cryogenic (low temperature) drilling at the poles of the Moon to deliver soil with inclusions of volatile organic substances to the Earth.
This method will allow organic compounds that are frozen on the regolith not to evaporate[67].
Questionable transactions[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Lunar Embassy
There are dubious companies that sell land on the moon.
In exchange for a certain fee, the buyer receives a certificate of "ownership" of a certain area of the moon's surface.
There is an opinion that at the moment such certificates have no legal force due to a violation of the terms of the 1967 Treaty on the Principles of the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space (the ban on the "national appropriation" of outer space, including the Moon, according to article II of the Treaty).
It is worth noting that this Agreement stipulates only the activities of states, without touching on the activities of individuals, which was used in this case by organizations.
In art and culture[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: The Moon in art
The moon is in the daytime sky.
The moon has repeatedly inspired poets and writers, artists and musicians, directors and screenwriters to create works related to this only natural satellite of the Earth.
Worthy places in libraries of all countries of the world were occupied by such works as:
"The Man on the Moon; or The Extraordinary journey made by Dominigo Gonzales, the Spanish adventurer; or the Aerial Ambassador" by Francis Godwin; "Another world, or the states and empires of the Moon" by Cyrano de Bergerac," The Extraordinary Adventure of a certain Hans Pfaal "by Edgar Poe," From the earth to the Moon" and "Around the Moon" by Jules Verne, "The First people on the Moon" by H. G. Wells; "Exiles of the Earth" by Andre Laurie;
"On the silver planet.
The Manuscript from the Moon — - the first part of the" Lunar Trilogy " by Jerzy Zhulavsky;
"On the Moon" by Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky; "Moon Bomb" by Andrey Platonov;
"The Star of KEC" by Alexander Belyaev, "Dunno on the Moon" by Nikolai Nosov," The Man Who Sold the Moon "by Robert Heinlein, "The Gods Themselves", "The Foundation and the Earth" by Isaac Asimov; "Moon Dust" by Sir Arthur C. Clarke;
and other works.
Musical works:
"Moonlight Sonata" by Ludwig van Beethoven," The Dark Side of the Moon "by Pink Floyd," Ticket to the Moon " by Electric Light Orchestra.
A large number of films and cartoons have been released that take place on the moon or describe events directly related to it, including:
"Journey to the Moon" (1902, France) — the first science fiction film in the history of cinema;
The First People on the Moon (1964, USA) is an adaptation of the novel of the same name by H. G. Wells; "Apollo 13" (1995, USA) - a film based on real events that occurred during the flight to the moon of an American manned spacecraft; "Luna 2112" (2009, UK) - a film about an astronaut watching the production of helium on the Moon; Apollo 18 (2011, USA) is a horror film about the secret flight of Apollo 18 (which, according to the official version, never took place) and the alien life forms that the crew encountered after landing on the Moon; "Dunno on the Moon" (1997) — a full length Russian cartoon based on the book of the same name by Nikolai Nosov;
and many others.
In the manga and anime animated series "Sailor Moon", the Moon is personified by two female warriors: Sailor Moon (character), aka Usagi Tsukino, and Sailor Chibi Moon (Sailor Baby), aka Chibiusa.
In culture[edit / edit wiki text]
See also: Solar and lunar letters
"The Moon and her children", an illustration from a medieval German book, 1480.
Once a year, the birth of a new moon marks the beginning of the Muslim month of fasting — Ramadan.
Christians determine the date of the celebration of Easter by the date of the first spring full moon.
In the Book of Genesis, the moon is called "the lesser luminary".
In the biblical book The Song of Songs, the beauty of Sulamith is compared to the bright moon: "Who is this woman who looks down from a height like the dawn, beautiful as the full moon? "(Song of Songs 6:10 NM)
The moon is the eighteenth card (arcanum) of the Tarot.
In ancient India, the moon was called the lord of the planets.
According to the Vedic traditions of that time, the moon was farther away than the Sun.
The moon is also mentioned in Japanese mythology as the habitat of rabbits, servants of the moon goddess Tsukiyomi.
The rabbits help her bake a rice snack called "mochi".
The name of the moon in Japanese mythology is Gekkou (gekko:).[source not specified 39 days]
In alchemy, the moon is a symbol of silver.
The moon as a crescent moon is depicted on the flags of many Muslim countries: Turkey Turkey, Pakistan Pakistan, Azerbaijan Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan Uzbekistan, Uyghurstan Uyghurstan, Malaysia Malaysia, Singapore Singapore, Brunei Brunei, Maldives Maldives, Algeria Algeria, Tunisia Tunisia, Libya Libya, Mauritania Mauritania, Comoros Comoros, SADR SADR, Northern Cyprus Northern Cyprus.
Also, the moon or crescent moon is depicted on the flags of some other states: Croatia, Croatia, Mongolia, Laos, Laos, Nepal, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bangladesh, Palau.
The illusion of the Moon[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: The Illusion of the Moon
The illusion of the Moon is a deception of vision, which consists in the fact that when the Moon is low above the horizon, it seems much larger than when it is hanging high in the sky.
In fact, the angular size of the Moon practically does not change with its height above the horizon (or rather, it changes slightly on the contrary: it is slightly smaller near the horizon than at the zenith, since in this case the distance from the observer to the Moon is greater by the magnitude of the Earth's radius).
Currently, there are several theories that explain this error of visual perception for different reasons.
Short term phenomena[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Short term lunar phenomena
Short term lunar phenomena are various short term local anomalies of the lunar surface and near lunar space, caused by non stationary processes on the Moon.
Influence on a person[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Phases of the Moon
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According to the idea of one of the Wikipedia participants, a special section should be located in this place.
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Literature[edit / edit wiki text]
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You will help the project by correcting and supplementing it.
Petrov V. P. Hello, Luna!
/ Petrov V. P., Yurevich P. P. — L.: Lenizdat, 1967 — - 191 p — - 24 500 copies.
Umansky S. P.
The moon — the seventh continent.
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Shilo N. A. Broad perspectives: (Old and new problems of the Moon) [On the significance of the method of delivering samples from the surface of celestial bodies of the solar system istemy] / / Komsomolskaya Pravda: gazeta.
- 1970.
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Notes[edit / edit wiki text]
Comments
Here, brightness is understood as a stellar magnitude, that is, the total luminous flux coming from a celestial body (and, as a result, the illumination created by it), and not brightness in the physical sense — the value of the luminous flux per unit of the solid angle of the object.
Many planets have a much greater significance of the latter, but in the case of the Moon, its proximity to the Earth and, consequently, its larger angular size plays a decisive role.
↑ The mass of the Sun is 333 thousand Earth masses, and the distance from the Earth to the Sun is about 150 million km / 384 thousand km ≈ 390 times greater than from the Earth to the Moon.
Accordingly, the ratio of the gravitational forces of the Sun and the Earth acting on the Moon will be 333000/3902 ≈ 2.2 times.
Used literature and sources
↑ 1 2 The solar system / Ed. - comp.
V. G. Surdin.
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Атмосфера The atmosphere of the Moon ↑ The Moon an article from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia.
Фас Fasmer M. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language.
- Progress.
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- Vol. 2 — - p. 533 .
Ко Korostovtsev, Mikhail Alexandrovich.
The religion of ancient Egypt.
- Moscow: Nauka, 1976.
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С Sin, the deity // Brockhaus and Efron's Encyclopedic Dictionary: in 86 vols.
(82 volumes and 4 supplements).
- St. Petersburg, 1890-1907 .
В. V. E. Zharov, 2002.
Spherical astronomy.
5.6. Pulsar time scale ↑ See M. M. Dagaev.
Solar and lunar eclipses.
Moscow: Nauka, 1978, p. 50—54.
Популяр "Popular Mechanics" No. 5, 2008 ↑ Galkin I. N., Shvarev V. V.
The structure of the Moon.
- Moscow: Znanie, 1977.
- 64 p.
— (New in life, science, technology.
The series "Cosmonautics, astronomy", 2.
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- ISBN ?
; BBK 526 G16.
Spr SpringerLink Space Science Reviews, Volume 154, Numbers 1-4 ↑ The lunar hemisphere, turned to the Earth, is much thicker than the reverse side of the Moon ↑ The orbital ephemerides of the Sun, Moon and planets.
8. Initial conditions Астро Astronet: 7.3 The gravitational field of the Moon ↑ Prof. A.V. NEKRASOV.
Sea tides.
Archived from the original source on July 5, 2012.
↑ 1 2 I. N. Galkin.
Extraterrestrial seismology.
- M.: Nauka, 1988 — - 195 p.
— (Planet Earth and the Universe).
— ISBN 502005951X.
Ученые Scientists have revealed the secret of the Moon's magnetic field ↑ "The first results of determining the physical and mechanical properties of the Moon's soils", p. 8 m.: Gosstroy of the USSR, edited by prof. dr. tech.sciences V. G. Bulycheva .
Э. E. V. Kononovich and V. I. Moroz.
General course of astronomy M.: URSS.
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↑ Ishihara, et al (October 2009).
«Crustal thickness of the Moon: Implications for farside basin structures».
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↑ Manabu Kato, et al (2010-08-25).
«The Kaguya Mission Overview».
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↑ Traces of fresh tectonic processes were found on the dark side of the Moon ↑ 1 2 3 "An entrance to an underground tunnel was found on the moon" - Tape.ru (26.10.2009) ↑ g.
Latem, I. Nakamura, J. Dorman, F. Dunebier, M. Ewing, D. Lamlein Results of a passive seismic experiment under the Apollo program / / Cosmochemistry of the Moon and planets.
Proceedings of the Soviet American Conference on the Cosmochemistry of the Moon and planets in Moscow (June 4-8, 1974) / Academy of Sciences of the USSR, National Aeronautics and Space Research Administration of the USA..
- Moscow: Nauka, 1975.
- pp.
299-310.
↑ There is a red hot metal core in the bowels of the moon, scientists believe (rus.).
RIA Novosti (January 8, 2011).
Checked on January 8, 2011.
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Американский Moonquakes ↑ Moonquakes ↑ An American scientist recognized the priority of the USSR in detecting water on the moon.
Lenta.ru (May 30, 2012).
Archived from the original source on July 5, 2012. (Verified on May 31, 2012)
↑ BBC | There was and is water on the moon ↑ Russian scientists have pointed out the potential locations of water on the Moon ↑ Jonathan Amos.
The Scientific Department of the BBC.
"A significant amount of water was found on the Moon" ↑ "More than 40 water ice craters were found on the Moon" А. A. Tsymbalnikov, M. Palivtsov, I. Fran, A. Mashtalka Chemical composition of fragments of crystalline rocks and regolith samples of "Luna 16" and "Luna 20" / / Cosmochemistry of the Moon and planets.
Proceedings of the Soviet American Conference on the Cosmochemistry of the Moon and planets in Moscow (June 4-8, 1974) / Academy of Sciences of the USSR, National Aeronautics and Space Research Administration of the USA..
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156-166 .
Ге Geophysical and geochemical features of the Moon.
Мете Meteors, meteorites, meteoroids.
Bronshten V. A. Удар An asteroid impact turned the Moon the other side to the Earth scientists (rus.).
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Д Dagaev M. M. Introduction / / Laboratory practicum on the course of general astronomy.
- 2nd ed.
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<url> (August 18, 2011).
Checked on August 19, 2011.
↑ The article "The Birth of the Moon" on selfire.com ↑ German scientists about the composition of lunar rocks ↑ Hf W Chronometry of Lunar Metals and the Age and Early Differentiation of the Moon / Science ↑ "Oreanda News": MISCELLANEOUS / Scientists learned the exact age of the Moon from meteorites ↑ Scientists estimated the age of the Moon at 4.51 billion years Три Trifonov E. D.
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Китай China launched its first lunar satellite — MEMBRANA, October 24, 2007 ↑ Savage, Donald; Gretchen Cook Anderson.
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NASA News (December 22, 2004).
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↑ Apollo 17 Lunar Module Landing Site (English).
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↑ "NASA has published a high definition PHOTO of the Moon, which shows the traces of astronauts and the landing site of the Apollo "http://www.newsru.com/world/07sep2011/fotomoon.html Jon Jonas Dino.
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НА NASA discovered water in the crater of the moon.
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↑ The project is in the archive ↑ The official website (English) ↑ The database of NASA photo and video materials ↑ Is Opportunity near Lunokhod's distance record?
Not as close as we used to think!.
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↑ Space rovers in record race.
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(eng.)
Moscow: how many grams is the moon?
//anomalniy mir.ru(not link) ^ a b the text of the agreement, in Wikisource ↑ Official website of the project "Constellation" (PDF).
↑ NASA will roll the Shuttle flights and the moon // rian.ru ↑ Website NASAwatch.com: "Video: NASA JSC''s "Project M"".
Р RSN.
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Ytro.
Ru (November 22, 2010).
Checked on November 22, 2010.
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Ученые Scientists came up with the idea of plugging holes on the Moon with traffic jams (rus.).
RBC (November 25, 2010).
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Россия Russia will search for water ice and volatile substances on the moon at a depth of half a meter (Russian).
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Checked on December 8, 2010.
Links[edit / edit wiki text]
The moon in Wiktionary?
The moon in the Wikicitatnik?
The moon in Wikitek?
The moon on Wikimedia Commons?
The moon in Vikinovosti?
Theories and versions of the origin of the moon moon Phases moon Phases, the perigee and apogee, cover stars and eclipses Data on the moon (SAI) Burba G. Great Odyssey (a Popular article about the flights to the moon) Color photograph of the moon Pictures of the moon taken with ground based telescopes Google Moon with the photos and maps of the lunar surface Virtual Moon Atlas Software (GPL) (English).
An interactive map of the moon (English).
The history of lunar cartography
Lectures
"Water of the dry Moon" Shevchenko V. V., lecture at the Moscow Planetarium, 20.03.2013 (video)
Documentaries
"From the point of view of science: The Secrets of the Moon" (English Naked Science: Moon Mysteries) — popular science film, 2005, National Geographic "From the point of view of science: The Mysteries of the Moon" (English Naked Science: Moon Mysteries) — popular science film, 2007, National Geographic "From the point of view of science: The Settlement of the Moon" (English Naked Science: Living on the Moon) — popular science film, 2009, National Geographic "From the point of view of view of science: The Earth without the Moon" (English Naked Science: Earth without the Moon) — popular science film, 2010, National Geographic "Mining on the Moon" (English Mining the Moon) — popular science film, 2011, Discovery Battle for the Moon documentary, 2010, (Roscosmos TV Studio)
Moon
Features
Internal Structure • Gravity • Topography • Magnetic Field • Atmosphere
The Moon's orbit
Phases (New Moon • First Quarter • Full Moon) * Ashen light • Solar Eclipse • Lunar Eclipse • Solar Eclipse on the Moon • Ebb and flow
Surface
Geological structures (seas • thalassoids • craters (list) * circuses • calderas (English) • mountains • valleys • furrows • volcanic structures (English)) • Radiation systems (English) • Selenography • Visible Side • Reverse Side • South Pole * South Pole — Aitken Pool • Ice • Eternal Light Peak • Short term moons natural phenomena
The science of the Moon
Geology (chronology • * Mineralogy • Seismology • Lunar Impact Formation Model • KREEP • ALSEP • Laser Location • Late Heavy Bombardment • Weathering • Mascon • Regolith • Meteorites
Study
Study • The Luna Space Program • The Apollo Project • Colonization • The Lunar Conspiracy
Other
Calendar • Month • Crescent • Mythology • Art • Illusion • Blue Moon • Supermoon • Origin • Hypothetical natural satellites of the Earth
Satellites of the terrestrial planets
Satellites of Mars
Phobos • Deimos
Earth Satellites
Moon • Other hypothetical • Quasi satellites: (164207) 2004 GU9, (277810) 2006 FV35, 2013 LX28, 2014 OL339, (469219) 2016 HO3 • Temporary satellites in a horseshoe orbit: (3753) Cruitney, 2002 AA29, 2003 YN107 (from 1996 to 2006), 2015 SO2
Satellites of Venus
Hypothetical moons of Venus • Quasi satellite 2002 VE68
Moons of Mercury
A hypothetical satellite of Mercury
Satellites in the Solar system
more than 4000 km
Ganymede • Titan • Callisto
2000-4000 km
Io * Luna • Europa • Triton
1000-2000 km
Titania * Rhea • Oberon • Iapetus • Charon • Ariel • Umbriel • Dione • Tethys
500-1000 km
Enceladus
250-500 km
Miranda * Proteus • Mimas • Nereida • Ilmare • Hiiaka • Hyperion • Acteia • S/2010 (225088) 1 • Dysnomia
100-250 km
Phoebe * Larissa • Janus • Galatea • Namaka • Amalthea • Pak • Sycorax • Portia • Forky • Vant • Zoya * Taviscaron • S/2015 (136472) 1 • Epimetheus
50-100 km
Thebes • Juliet • Nikta • Prometheus • Elara • S/2000 (90) 1 • Thalassa • Pandora • Belinda • Cressida * Hydra • Rosalind • Caliban • Naiad • Desdemona • Galimeda • Pacife • Neso • Bianca • Veivot • Prospero
By planets
(and dwarf)
Mercury • Venus • Earth (Moon) • Mars • Asteroids • Jupiter • Saturn • Uranium • Neptune • Pluto • Haumea • Makemake • Eris • Candidates: (225088) 2007 OR10 • Orka • Kvavara
The Solar System (list of objects)
The central star and the planets are the Sun • Mercury • Venus • Earth • Mars • Jupiter • Saturn • Uranus • Neptune
dwarf planets
Ceres • Pluto • Haumea • Makemake • Eris • Candidates: Sedna • Orc • Kvavar • 2007 OR10 • 2002 MS4
large satellites
Ganymede • Titan • Callisto • Io * Luna • Europa • Triton • Titania • Rhea • Oberon • Iapetus • Charon • Ariel • Umbriel • Dione • Tethys • Enceladus • Miranda • Proteus • Mimas • Nereid
Satellites / rings
Land / ∅ • Mars • Jupiter / ∅ • Saturn / ∅ • Uranium / ∅ • Neptune / ∅ • Pluto / ∅ • Haumea • Makemake • Eris • Candidates: Orca • Kvavara
The first discovered asteroids
(2) Pallas • (3) Juno • (4) Vesta • (5) Astrea • (6) Hebe • (7) Iris • (8) Flora • (9) Metis • (10) Hygeia • (11) Parthenope
Small bodies
meteoroids • asteroids / their satellites (near Earth * main belt · Trojan * centaurs) • Trans Neptunian (Kuiper Belt (plutino · cubivano) * scattered disk) * damocloids • comets (Oort cloud)
Artificial objects
artificial Earth satellites • interplanetary spacecraft
Hypothetical objects
Volcano and volcanoids • Mercury satellite • Venus satellites • other Earth satellites • Counter Earth (Gloria) • former planets Theia, Phaeton or Planet V • The Fifth gas giant • The Ninth planet, Tyuhe, Planet X and other trans Neptunian planets • Nemesis
Astronomical objects • Portal:Astronomy • Project:Asteroids
Thematic sites
Open Directory Project (English) · Open Directory Project (German) · Open Directory Project (Spanish) · Open Directory Project
Dictionaries and encyclopedias of the Bible · Brockhaus and Efron · Jewish Brockhaus and Efron · Small Brockhaus and Efron · Britannica (onl
