The sun is a material from Wikipedia the free encyclopedia
The Sun (astr. ☉ ) is the only star in the solar system.
Other objects of this system revolve around the Sun: planets and their satellites, dwarf planets and their satellites, asteroids, meteoroids, comets and cosmic dust.
The mass of the Sun is 99.86 % of the total mass of the entire Solar system[7].
Solar radiation supports life on Earth[8] (light is necessary for the initial stages of photosynthesis), determines the climate.
The sun consists of hydrogen (≈73 % of the mass and ≈92 % of the volume), helium (≈25 % of the mass and ≈7 % of the volume[9]) and other elements with a lower concentration: iron, nickel, oxygen, nitrogen, silicon, sulfur, magnesium, carbon, neon, calcium and chromium[10].
For 1 million hydrogen atoms, there are 98,000 helium atoms, 851 oxygen atoms, 398 carbon atoms, 123 neon atoms, 100 nitrogen atoms, 47 iron atoms, 38 magnesium atoms, 35 silicon atoms, 16 sulfur atoms, 4 argon atoms, 3 aluminum atoms, 2 nickel, sodium and calcium atoms, as well as a small number of other elements.
The average density of the Sun is 1.4 g / cm3.
According to the spectral classification, the Sun belongs to the G2V type ("yellow dwarf").
The surface temperature of the Sun reaches 6000 K.
Therefore, the Sun shines with almost white light, but the direct light of the Sun at the surface of our planet acquires a certain yellow hue due to stronger scattering and absorption of the short wave part of the spectrum by the Earth's atmosphere (when the sky is clear, together with the blue scattered light from the sky, sunlight again gives white illumination).
The solar spectrum contains lines of ionized and neutral metals, as well as hydrogen and helium.
There are over 100 billion stars in our Milky Way galaxy[11].
At the same time, 85% of the stars in our galaxy are stars that are less bright than the Sun (most of them are red dwarfs).
Like all main sequence stars, the Sun generates energy through thermonuclear fusion.
In the case of the Sun, the vast majority of energy is generated by the synthesis of helium from hydrogen.
The average distance of the Sun from the Earth 1,496·108 km[1] - is approximately equal to an astronomical unit, and the apparent angular diameter when observed from the Earth, as well as from the Moon, is slightly more than half a degree (31-32 minutes).
The sun is located at a distance of about 26,000 light years from the center of the Milky Way and rotates around it, making one revolution in 225-250 million years[12].
The orbital speed of the Sun is 217 km / s — thus, it passes one light year in 1400 earth years, and one astronomical unit — in 8 earth days[13].
Currently, the Sun is located in the inner edge of the Orion arm of our Galaxy, between the Perseus arm and the Sagittarius arm, in the so — called "Local interstellar cloud" — a region of increased density, located, in turn, in a lower density "Local bubble" - a zone of scattered high temperature interstellar gas.
Of the stars belonging to the 50 closest star systems within 17 light years known at present, the Sun is the fourth brightest star (its absolute magnitude is +4.83 m).
The sun
Main Features Average distance
1,496·108 km[1]
from the ground
(8.31 light minutes) 1 A. E.
Average horizontal parallax
8,794"
Apparent magnitude (V)
−26,74m[1]
Absolute stellar magnitude
4,83m[1]
Spectral class
G2V
Orbit parameters Distance
~2.5·1020 m
from the center of the Galaxy
(26,000 holy years)
Distance
~4.6·1017 m
from the plane of the Galaxy
(48 holy years)
Galactic period of circulation
2,25-2,50·108 years
Speed
~2.2·105 m / s[2] (in orbit around the center of the Galaxy)
19.4 km/s[1] (relative to neighboring stars)
Physical Characteristics Average diameter
1,392·109 m (109 Earth diameters)[1]
The equatorial radius is 6,9551·108 m[3]
Contents 1 General information 2 Life cycle 3 Structure 3.1 Internal structure of the Sun 3.1.1 Solar Core 3.1.2 Radiant transport zone 3.1.3 Convective Zone of the Sun 3.2 Solar Atmosphere 3.2.1 Photosphere 3.2.2 Chromosphere 3.2.3 Corona 3.2.4 Solar Wind 4 Solar magnetic fields 4.1 Origin and types of solar magnetic fields 4.2 Solar activity and solar cycle 4.3 The Sun as a variable star 5 Theoretical problems 5.1 The Problem of solar neutrinos 5.2 The Problem of heating the corona 6 Solar research 6.1 Early observations of the Sun 6.2 The development of modern scientific understanding 6.3 Space research of the Sun 6.4 Observations of the Sun and the danger to vision 7 Solar eclipses 8 The
Sun and the Earth 9 The Sun in world culture 9.1 In religion and mythology 9.2 In occultism 9.3 In the languages of the world 9.4 Urban legends about the Sun 10 Sun Doubles 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References
General information The sun belongs to the first type of stellar population.
One of the most common theories of the origin of the Solar System suggests that its formation was caused by the explosions of one or more supernovae[14].
This assumption is based, in particular, on the fact that the substance of the Solar System contains an abnormally large proportion of gold and uranium, which could be the result of endothermic reactions caused by this explosion, or the nuclear transformation of elements by the absorption of neutrons by the substance of a massive second generation star.
Solar radiation is the main source of energy on Earth.
Its power is characterized by the solar constant - the power of radiation passing through a site of a unit area perpendicular to the sun's rays and located at a distance of one astronomical unit from the Sun (that is, in the Earth's orbit) outside the Earth's atmosphere.
This constant is approximately 1.37 kW / m2.
equator
4.37001·109 m[3]
Polar compression
9·10−6
Surface area
6,07877·1018 m2
Circumference of the circle
(11,917,607 land areas)[3]
Volume
1,40927·1027 m3 (1,301,018,805 volumes of land)[3]
Weight
1.9885·1030 kg (332,940 Earth masses)[1]
Average density
1,409 g / cm3[3]
Acceleration of gravity at the equator
274.0 m / s2[1][3] (27.96 g[3])
The second cosmic speed
617.7 km / s (55.2 terrestrial)[3]
(for the surface)
Effective surface temperature
5778 K[1]
Temperature
~1,500,000 K
crowns
Temperature
~13 500 000 K
cores
Luminosity
3,828·1026 W[1] (~3.75·1028 Lm)
Brightness
2,009·107 W/ m2/cp
Rotation characteristics Axis tilt
7.25°[1][3] (relative to the ecliptic plane)
67.23° (relative to the plane of the Galaxy)
Direct ascent
286,13°[4]
the north pole
(19 h 4 min 30 s)
Declination
+63,87°[4]
the north pole
Sidereal rotation period of external
25.38 days [1] (25 days 9 h 7 min
Passing through the Earth's atmosphere, solar radiation loses about 370 W / m2 in energy, and only the Earth and the Sun reach the Earth's surface (photomontage with the preservation of 1000 W/m2 (with a clear size ratio) weather and when the Sun is at the zenith).
This energy can be used in various natural and artificial processes.
So, plants, using it through photosynthesis, synthesize organic compounds with the release of oxygen.
Direct heating by solar rays or energy conversion with the help of solar cells can be used to produce electricity (solar power plants) or perform other useful work.
The energy stored in oil and other types of fossil fuels was also obtained by photosynthesis in the distant past.
visible layers
13 c)[4]
(at latitude 16°) (at the equator)
25.05 days [1]
(at the poles)
34.3 days [1]
Rotation speed of 7284 km / h of the outer visible layers (at the equator)
Composition of the photosphere[5][6] Hydrogen
73,46 %
Helium
24,85 %
Oxygen
0,77 %
Carbon
0,29 %
Iron
0,16 %
Neon
0,12 %
Nitrogen
0,09 %
Silicon
0,07 %
Ultraviolet Magnesium 0.05 % radiation from the Sun has antiseptic Sulfur 0.04 % properties that allow it to be used for disinfection of water and various objects.
It also causes a tan and has other biological effects, for example, the comparative size of the Sun and stimulates the production of vitamin D in the body.
The effect of observation from the vicinity of the well known ultraviolet part of the solar spectrum is greatly weakened by the bodies of the Solar system by the ozone layer in the Earth's atmosphere, so the intensity of ultraviolet radiation on the Earth's surface varies greatly with latitude.
The angle at which the Sun is above the horizon at noon affects many types of biological adaptation — for example, the color of a person's skin in different regions of the globe depends on it[15].
The path of the Sun observed from the Earth along the celestial sphere changes throughout the year.
The path described during the year by the point that the Sun occupies in the sky at a certain specified time is called an analemma and has the shape of the number 8, elongated along the north south axis.
The most noticeable variation in the apparent position of the Sun in the sky is its oscillation along the north — south direction with an amplitude of 47° (caused by the inclination of the ecliptic plane to the plane of the celestial equator, equal to 23.5°).
There is also another component of this variation, directed along the east west axis and caused by an increase in the speed of the Earth's orbital motion as it approaches perihelion and a decrease as it approaches aphelion.
The first of these movements (north — south) is the reason for the change of seasons.
The Earth passes through the aphelion point in early July and moves away from the Sun at a distance of 152 million km, and through the perihelion point — in early January and approaches the Sun at a distance of 147 million km[16].
The apparent diameter of the Sun varies by 3% between these two dates[17].
Since the difference in distance is about 5 million km, the Earth receives about 7 % less heat in aphelion.
Thus, winters in the northern hemisphere are slightly warmer than in the southern hemisphere, and summers are slightly cooler.
The sun is a magnetically active star.
It has a strong magnetic field, the intensity of which changes with time and which changes direction approximately every 11 years, during the solar maximum.
Variations of the Sun's magnetic field cause a variety of effects, the totality of which is called solar activity and includes such phenomena as sunspots, solar flares, variations of the solar wind, etc., and on Earth causes auroras in high and middle latitudes and geomagnetic storms, which negatively affect the operation of communication facilities, power transmission facilities, and also negatively affects living organisms (cause headache and poor health in people sensitive to magnetic storms)[18][19].
It is assumed that solar activity played a major role in the formation and development of the Solar system.
It also affects the structure of the Earth's atmosphere.
The sun is a young star of the third generation (population I) with a high metal content, that is, it was formed from the remains of stars of the first and second generations (populations III and II, respectively).
The current age of the Sun (more precisely, the time of its existence on the main sequence), estimated using computer models of stellar evolution, is approximately 4.5 billion years[20].
It is believed[20] that the Sun was formed about 4.5 billion years ago, when the rapid compression under the influence of gravitational forces of a cloud of molecular hydrogen led to the formation of a star of the first type of a stellar population of the type T Taurus in our region of the Galaxy.
A star of the same mass as the Sun should exist on the main sequence for a total of about 10 billion years.
Thus, the Sun is now approximately in the middle of its life cycle[21].
At the present stage, thermonuclear reactions of converting hydrogen into helium are taking place in the solar core.
Every second, about 4 million tons of matter in the Sun's core is converted into radiant energy, resulting in the generation of solar radiation and a stream of solar neutrinos.
As the Sun gradually consumes its reserves of hydrogen fuel, it becomes hotter and its luminosity slowly but steadily increases.
By the age of 5.6 billion years, in 1.1 billion years from the present, our daylight will be 11% brighter than it is now[22].
The increase in the luminosity of the Sun during this period is such that the Earth's surface, due to the greenhouse effect induced by water vapor, will be too hot for life to exist on it in its modern sense.
Despite this, life can remain in the oceans[23] and polar regions.
According to a professor at the University of Pennsylvania, J. Casting [24], the disappearance of life due to an increase in temperature caused by an increase in the brightness of the Sun[25], is possible even before the red giant stage, th rez is 1 billion years old[26][27].
By this time, the Sun will have reached the maximum surface temperature (5800 K) for the entire time of its evolution in the past and future up to the white dwarf phase; in the next stages, the temperature of the photosphere will be less.
By the age of 8 billion years (3.5 billion years from now), the brightness of the Sun will increase by 40 %[22].
By that time, the conditions on Earth will be similar to the conditions on Venus today[23]: water from the surface of the planet will disappear completely and will escape into space[23].
This catastrophe will lead to the final destruction of all forms of life on Earth.
As the hydrogen fuel in the solar core burns out, its outer shell will expand, and the core will shrink and heat up.
When the Sun reaches the age of 10.9 billion years (6.4 billion years from the present time), the hydrogen in the core will run out, and the helium formed from it, still unable to thermonuclear combustion under these conditions, will begin to contract and condense due to the termination of the energy flow from the center that previously supported it "on weight".
Gorenje The hydrogen gorenje will continue in the thin outer layer of the core.
At this stage, the Sun's radius will reach 1.59 R☉, and the luminosity will be 2.21 times greater than today's.
Over the next 0.7 billion years, the Sun will expand relatively rapidly (up to 2.3 R ), maintaining an almost constant luminosity, and its temperature will drop
it will expand relatively quickly (up to 2.3 R☉), maintaining an almost constant luminosity, and its temperature will drop from 5500 K to 4900 K[23].
At the end of this phase, reaching the age of 11.6 billion years (7 billion years from the present) The sun will become a subgiant[23].
Approximately in 7.6-7.8[28] [23] billion years, by the age of 12.2 billion years, the core of the Sun will warm up so much that it will start the process of burning hydrogen in the surrounding shell[28].Gorenje is a natural gas source.
This will entail a rapid expansion of the outer shells of the luminary, and thus the Sun will leave the main sequence, where it has been located almost since its birth, and become a red giant, moving to the top of the branch of the red giants of the Hertzsprung — Russell diagram[28].
In this phase, the radius of the Sun will increase by 256 times compared to the modern one[28].
The expansion of the star will lead to a strong increase in its luminosity (by 2700 times) and cooling of the surface to 2650 K[28].
Apparently, the expanding outer layers of the Sun at this time will reach the modern orbit of the Earth.
At the same time, studies show that even before this moment, due to the strengthening of the solar wind due to a multiple increase in the surface area, the Sun will lose more than 28 %[23] of its mass, which will lead to the fact that the Earth will move to a more distant orbit from the Sun and, thus, avoid absorption by the outer layers of solar plasma[29][26].
Although studies in 2008 show that the Earth is likely to be absorbed by the Sun due to the slowing down of the Sun's rotation and subsequent tidal interactions with its outer shell[28], which will lead to the approach of the Earth's orbit back to the Sun.
Even if our planet avoids being absorbed by the Sun, all the water on it will turn into a gaseous state, and its atmosphere will be torn off by the strongest solar wind[30].
This phase of the Sun's existence will last only about ten million years.
When the temperature in the core reaches 100 million K, a helium flash will occur, and a thermonuclear reaction of carbon and oxygen synthesis from helium will begin[23].
The sun, which has received a new source of energy, will decrease in size to 9.5 R☉[23].
After 100-110 million years, when the helium reserves run out, the rapid expansion of the outer shells of the star will repeat, and it will again become a red giant[23].
This period of the Sun's existence will be accompanied by powerful flashes, at times its luminosity will exceed the current level by 5200 times[23][31].
This will occur due to the fact that previously unaffected helium residues will enter into the thermonuclear reaction[31].
In this state, the Sun will last about 20 million years[23].
The mass of the Sun is not enough for its evolution to end with a supernova explosion.
After the Sun passes the red giant phase, thermal pulsations will lead to the fact that its outer shell will be torn off, and a planetary nebula will form from it.
In the center of this nebula will remain a white dwarf formed from the core of the Sun, a very hot and dense object, but only the size of the Earth[23].
Initially, this white dwarf will have a surface temperature of 120,000 K[23] and a luminosity of 3,500 [23] solar, but over many millions and billions of years it will cool down and fade away.
This life cycle is considered typical for low and medium mass stars.
they are called solar activity.
These fields manifest themselves in the photosphere as sunspots and cause such phenomena as solar flares, generation of accelerated particle fluxes, changes in the levels of electromagnetic radiation from the Sun in various ranges, coronal mass ejections, solar wind disturbances, variations in galactic cosmic ray fluxes (Forbush effect), etc.Solar activity is also associated with variations in geomagnetic activity (including magnetic storms), which are the result of disturbances of the interplanetary medium reaching the Earth, caused, in turn, by active phenomena on the Sun.
One of the most common indicators of the level of solar activity is the Wolf number, which is associated with the number of sunspots on the visible hemisphere of the Sun.
The overall level of solar activity varies with a characteristic period of approximately 11 years (the so called "solar activity cycle" or "eleven year cycle").
This period is maintained inaccurately and in the XX century was closer to 10 years, and for
the last 300 years have ranged from about 7 to 17 years.
It is customary to assign consecutive numbers to the cycles of solar activity, starting from the conditionally selected first cycle, the maximum of which was in 1761.
In 2000, the maximum of the 23rd cycle of solar activity was observed.
There are also variations in solar activity of longer duration.
So, in the second half of the XVII century, solar activity and, in particular, its eleven year cycle were greatly weakened (Maunder minimum).
During the same epoch, there was a decrease in average annual temperatures in Europe (the so called Little Ice Age), which may have been caused by the impact of solar activity on the Earth's climate.
There is also a point of view that global warming is to some extent caused by an increase in the global level of solar activity in the second half of the XX century.
However, the mechanisms of such an impact are still not clear enough.
The largest group of sunspots in the entire history of observations appeared in April 1947 in the southern hemisphere of the Sun.
Its maximum length was 300,000 km, its maximum width was 145,000 km, and its maximum area exceeded 6000 millionths of the area of the Sun's hemisphere[60], which is about 36 times the area of the Earth's surface.
The group was easily visible to the naked eye in the sunset hours.
According to the catalog of the Pulkovo Observatory, this group (No. 87 for 1947) passed through the hemisphere of the Sun visible from the Earth from March 31 to April 14, 1947, its maximum area was 6,761 tir, and the maximum area of the largest spot in the group was 5,055 tir; the number of spots in the group reached 172[61].
The Sun as a variable star Since the magnetic activity of the Sun is subject to periodic changes, and along with this its luminosity also changes (see the Solar cycle), it can be considered as a variable star.
In the years of maximum activity, the Sun is brighter than in the years of minimum activity.
The amplitude of changes in the solar constant reaches 0.1 % (in absolute values it is 1 W/m2, while the average value of the solar constant is 1361.5 W/m2) [62].
Also, some researchers attribute the Sun to the class of low active variable stars of the BY Dragon type[63][64].
The surface of such stars is covered with spots (up to 30 % of the total area), and due to the rotation of the stars, changes in their brightness are observed.
This variability is very weak in the Sun.
Theoretical problems The problem of solar neutrinos Nuclear reactions occurring in the core of the Sun lead to the formation of a large number of electron neutrinos.
At the same time, measurements of the neutrino flux on Earth, which have been continuously performed since the late 1960s, have shown that the number of recorded solar electron neutrinos is approximately two to three times less than predicted by the standard solar model describing processes in the Sun.
This discrepancy between experiment and theory has been called the "solar neutrino problem" and has been one of the mysteries of solar physics for more than 30 years.
The situation is complicated by the fact that neutrinos interact extremely weakly with matter, and the creation of a neutrino detector that is able to accurately measure the neutrino flux even of such power as coming from the Sun is a technically difficult and expensive task (see Neutrino Astronomy).
Two main ways of solving the problem of solar neutrinos were proposed.
First, it was possible to modify the model of the Sun in such a way as to reduce the assumed thermonuclear activity (and, therefore, the temperature) in its core and, consequently, the flux of neutrinos emitted by the Sun.
Secondly, it could be assumed that some of the electron neutrinos emitted by the Sun's core, when moving towards the Earth, turn into neutrinos of other generations that are not registered by conventional detectors (muon and tauneutrinos)[65].
Today it is clear that the second way is most likely the right one.
In order for the transition of one kind of neutrino to another to take place — that is, the so — called neutrino oscillations occur the neutrino must have a mass other than zero.
It has now been established that this is indeed the case[66].
In 2001, solar neutrinos of all three varieties were directly registered at the neutrino Observatory in Sudbury, and it was shown that their total flux is consistent with the standard solar model.
At the same time, only about a third of the neutrinos that reach the Earth turn out to be electronic.
This number is consistent with the theory that predicts the transition of electron neutrinos to
neutrinos of a different generation both in vacuum (actually "neutrino oscillations") and in solar matter ("the Mikheev Smirnov Wolfenstein effect").
Thus, at present, the problem of solar neutrinos seems to be solved.
The problem of heating the corona Above the visible surface of the Sun (the photosphere), which has a temperature of about 6000 K, there is a solar corona with a temperature of more than 1,000,000 K.
It can be shown that the direct heat flow from the photosphere is not enough to lead to such a high temperature of the corona.
It is assumed that the energy for heating the corona is supplied by the turbulent movements of the subphotospheric convective zone.
At the same time, two mechanisms are proposed for the transfer of energy to the corona.
First, this is wave heating — sound and magnetohydrodynamic waves generated in a turbulent convective zone propagate into the corona and are scattered there, while their energy is converted into thermal energy of the coronal plasma.
An alternative mechanism is magnetic heating, in which the magnetic energy continuously generated by photospheric movements is released by reconnecting the magnetic field in the form of large solar flares or a large number of small flares[67].
At the moment, it is unclear what type of waves provides an effective mechanism for heating the corona.
It can be shown that all waves, except magnetohydrodynamic Alfven waves, are scattered or reflected before they reach the corona[68], while the dissipation of Alfven waves in the corona is difficult.
Therefore, modern researchers have focused on the mechanism of heating with the help of solar flares.
One of the possible candidates for sources of corona heating is continuously occurring small scale flares[69], although final clarity on this issue has not yet been achieved.
Early observations of the Sun Since the earliest times, mankind has noted the important role of the Sun — a bright disk in the sky, carrying light and heat.
In many prehistoric and ancient cultures, the Sun was worshipped as a deity.
The cult of the Sun occupied an important place in the religions of the civilizations of Egypt, the Incas, the Aztecs.
Many ancient monuments are associated with the Sun: for example, megaliths accurately mark the position of the summer solstice (some of the largest megaliths of this kind are located in Nabta Playa (Egypt) and Stonehenge (England)), the pyramids in Chichen Itza (Mexico) are built in such a way that the shadow of the Earth slides over the pyramid during the spring and autumn equinoxes, etc.
Ancient Greek astronomers, observing the apparent annual movement of the Sun along the ecliptic, considered the Sun to be one of the seven planets (from the Greek -σστρρ πλανττης a wandering star).
In some languages, the sun, along with the planets, is dedicated to the day of the week.
Development of modern scientific understanding
The solar cart from Trundholm is a sculpture that is believed to reflect the belief about the movement of the sun on a chariot, characteristic of the Proto Indo European religion.
The Greek philosopher Anaxagoras was one of the first to try to look at the Sun from a scientific point of view.
He said that the Sun is not the chariot of Helios, as Greek mythology taught, but a giant," larger than the Peloponnese, " a red hot metal ball.
For this heretical teaching, he was thrown into prison, sentenced to death and released only thanks to the intervention of Pericles.
The idea that the Sun is the center around which the planets revolve was expressed by Aristarchus of Samos and ancient Indian scientists (see Heliocentric system of the world).
This theory was revived by Copernicus in the XVI century.
Aristarchus of Samos was the first to calculate the distance from the Earth to the Sun by measuring the angle between the Sun and the Moon in the phase of the first or last quarter and determining from the corresponding right triangle the ratio of the distance from the Earth to the Moon to the distance from the Earth to the Sun[70].
According to Aristarchus, the distance to
The sun is 18 times the distance to the moon.
In fact, the distance to the Sun is 394 times greater than the distance to the moon.
And here is the distance d the concept of the moon in antiquity was determined very accurately by Hipparchus, and he used a different method proposed by Aristarchus of Samos[70].
Chinese astronomers have been observing sunspots for centuries, since the Han Dynasty.
The spots were first sketched in 1128 in the chronicle of John of Worcester[71].
Since 1610, the era of instrumental research of the Sun begins.
The invention of the telescope and its special version for observing the Sun the helioscope allowed Galileo, Thomas Herriot, Christoph Scheiner and other scientists to consider sunspots.
Galileo, apparently, was the first among the researchers to recognize the spots as part of the solar structure, unlike Scheiner, who considered them planets passing in front of the Sun.
This assumption allowed Galileo to discover the rotation of the Sun and calculate its period.
The priority of the discovery of spots and their nature was devoted to more than a decade of controversy between Galileo and Scheiner, however, most likely, the first observation and the first publication do not belong to either of them[72].
The first more or less acceptable estimate of the distance from the Earth to the Sun by the method of parallax was obtained by Giovanni Domenico Cassini and Jean Richet.
In 1672, when Mars was in a great confrontation with the Earth, they measured the position of Mars simultaneously in Paris and in Cayenne the administrative center of French Guiana.
The observed parallax was 24".
Based on the results of these observations, the distance from Earth to Mars was found, which was then recalculated into the distance from Earth to the Sun — 140 million km.
At the beginning of the XIX century, Father Pietro Angelo Secchi (ital.
Pietro Angelo Secchi, the chief astronomer of the Vatican, initiated such a direction of research in astronomical science as spectroscopy, decomposing sunlight into composite colors.
It became clear that in this way it was possible to study the composition of stars, and Fraunhofer discovered absorption lines in the spectrum of the Sun.
Thanks to spectroscopy, a new element was discovered in the composition of the Sun, which was named Helium in honor of the ancient Greek Sun god Helios.
For a long time, the sources of solar energy remained unclear.
In 1848, Robert Mayer put forward the meteorite hypothesis, according to which the Sun warms up due to the bombardment of meteorites.
However, with such a number of meteorites, the Earth would also get very hot; in addition, the Earth's geological strata would consist mainly of meteorites; finally, the mass of the Sun would have to grow, and this would affect the movement of the planets[73].
Therefore, in the second half of the XIX century, many researchers considered the most plausible theory developed by Helmholtz (1853) and Lord Kelvin[74], who suggested that the Sun warms due to slow gravitational compression ("the Kelvin Helmholtz mechanism").
Calculations based on this mechanism estimated the maximum age of the Sun at 20 million years, and the time after which the Sun will go out — no more than 15 million[73].
However, this hypothesis contradicted the geological data on the age of rocks, which indicated much larger numbers.
For example, Charles Darwin noted that the erosion of the Vendian deposits lasted at least 300 million years[75].
Nevertheless, the Brockhaus and Efron encyclopedia considers the gravitational model to be the only valid one[73].
Only in the XX century was the correct solution to this problem found.
Initially, Rutherford hypothesized that the source of the Sun's internal energy is radioactive decay[76].
In 1920, Arthur Eddington suggested that the pressure and temperature in the bowels of the Sun are so high that a thermonuclear reaction can take place there, in which hydrogen nuclei (protons) merge into a helium 4 nucleus.
Since the mass of the latter is less than the sum of the masses of four free protons, part of the mass in this reaction passes into the energy of photons[77].
The fact that hydrogen predominates in the composition of the Sun was confirmed in 1925 by Cecilia Payne.
The theory of thermonuclear fusion was developed in the 1930s by astrophysicists Chandrasekhar and Hans Bethe.
Bethe calculated in detail the two main thermonuclear reactions that are the sources of energy of the Sun[78][79].
Finally, in 1957, Margaret Burbidge's work "Synthesis of Elements in Stars"[80] appeared, in which it was shown that most of the elements in the Universe arose as a result of nucleosynthesis occurring in stars.
In 1905, George Ellery Hale at the Mount Wilson Observatory installed the first solar telescope in a small observatory that was built, and began searching for an answer to the origin of the sunspots discovered by Galileo.
George Hale discovered that sunspots are caused by a magnetic field, because it leads to a decrease in surface temperature.
It is the magnetic field on the surface of the Sun that causes solar winds — an eruption of the plasma of the solar corona hundreds of thousands of kilometers into space.
Space exploration of the Sun
The Earth's atmosphere prevents the passage of many types of electromagnetic radiation from space.
In addition, even in the visible part of the spectrum, for which the atmosphere is quite transparent, images of space objects can be distorted by its fluctuations, so it is better to make observations of these objects at high altitudes (in high altitude observatories, using instruments raised to the upper atmosphere, etc.) or even from space.
This is also true for observations of the Sun.
If you need to get a very clear image of the Sun, study its ultraviolet or X ray radiation, accurately measure the solar constant, then observations and surveys are carried out from balloons, rockets, satellites and space stations.
In fact, the first extra atmospheric observations of the Sun were carried out by the second artificial Earth satellite "Sputnik 2" in 1957.
The observations were carried out in several spectral ranges from 1 to 120 Å, isolated using organic and metallic filters[81].
The experimental detection of the solar wind was carried out in 1959 with the help of ion traps of the Luna 1 and Luna 2 spacecraft, the experiments on which were led by Konstantin Gringauz[82][83][84].
Other spacecraft that studied the solar wind were the Pioneer series satellites created by NASA with numbers 5-9, launched between 1960 and 1968.
These satellites orbited the Sun near the Earth's orbit and performed detailed measurements of the parameters of the solar wind.
In the 1970s, the Helios I and HeliosII satellites were launched as part of a joint project between the United States and Germany.
They were in a heliocentric orbit, the perihelion of which lay inside the orbit of Mercury, about 40 million km from the Sun.
These devices helped to obtain new data on the solar wind.
In 1973, the Apollo Telescope Mount space solar Observatory was put into operation.
on the Skylab space station.
With the help of this observatory, the first observations of the solar transition region and the ultraviolet radiation of the solar corona were made in a dynamic mode.
With its help, coronal mass ejections and coronal holes were also discovered, which, as is now known, are closely related to the solar wind.
In 1980, NASA launched the Solar Maximum Mission (SolarMax) space probe into near Earth orbit, which was designed to observe ultraviolet, X ray and gamma radiation from solar flares during a period of high solar activity.
However, just a few months after launch, due to an electronic malfunction, the probe switched to passive mode.
In 1984, the space expedition STS 41C on the shuttle Challenger eliminated the malfunction of the probe and launched it into orbit again.
After that, before its entry into the atmosphere in June 1989, the device received thousands of images of the solar corona[85].
His measurements also helped to find out that the power of the total radiation of the Sun for a year and a half of observations changed only by 0.01 %.
The Japanese satellite " Yohkoh "(яここ е е:ko:," sunlight"), launched in 1991, carried out observations of the Sun's radiation in the X ray range.
The data he obtained helped scientists identify several different types of solar flares and showed that the corona, even far from the areas of maximum activity, is much more dynamic than was commonly believed.
"Eko" functioned during the full solar cycle and switched to passive mode during the solar eclipse of 2001, when it lost its orientation to the Sun.
In 2005, the satellite entered the atmosphere and was destroyed[86].
The SOHO (SOlar and Heliospheric Observatory) program, organized jointly by the European Space Agency and NASA, is very important for solar research.
Launched on December 2, 1995, the SOHO spacecraft has been operating for more than ten years instead of the planned two (2009).
It turned out to be so useful that on February 11, 2010, the next, similar SDO (Solar Dynamics Observatory) spacecraft was launched[87].
SOHO is located at the Lagrange point between the Earth and the Sun and since its launch, it has been transmitting images of the Sun to the Earth in various wavelength ranges.
In addition to its main task — the study of the Sun — SOHO has studied a large number of comets, mostly very small ones, which evaporate as they approach the Sun[88].
All these satellites observed the Sun from the plane of the ecliptic and therefore could only study in detail the regions far from its poles.
In 1990, the Ulysses space probe was launched to study the polar regions of the Sun.
First, he made a gravitational maneuver near Jupiter to get out of the plane t of the ecliptic.
By a happy coincidence, he also managed to observe the collision of comet Shoemaker Levy 9 with Jupiter in 1994.
After he entered the planned orbit, he began to observe the solar wind and the magnetic field strength at high solar latitudes.
It turned out that the solar wind at these latitudes has a speed of about 750 km/s, which is less than expected, and that there are large magnetic fields on them that scatter galactic cosmic rays[89].
The composition of the solar photosphere has been well studied using spectroscopic methods, but there is much less data on the ratio of elements in the deep layers of the Sun.
In order to get direct data on the composition of the Sun, the Genesis spacecraft was launched.
He returned to Earth in 2004, but was damaged on landing due to a malfunction of one of the acceleration sensors and a parachute that did not open as a result.
Despite the severe damage, the return module delivered several samples of the solar wind suitable for studying to Earth.
An image of the south pole of the Sun obtained during the STEREO mission.
In the lower right part of the image, a mass ejection is visible
On September 22, 2006, the Hinode Solar Observatory (Solar B) was launched into Earth orbit.
The observatory was created at the ISAS Institute in Japan, where the Yohkoh Observatory (Solar A) was developed and is equipped with three instruments: SOT a solar optical telescope, XRT an X ray telescope and EIS an ultraviolet imaging spectrometer.
The main task of Hinode is to study active processes in the solar corona and establish their connection with the structure and dynamics of the Sun's magnetic field[90].
In October 2006, the STEREO solar observatory was launched.
It consists of two identical spacecraft in such orbits that one of them is constantly lagging behind the Earth, and the other is overtaking it.
This makes it possible to obtain stereo images of the Sun and such solar phenomena as coronal mass ejections.
In January 2009, the Russian Coronas Photon satellite was launched with the Tesis space telescope complex[91].
The observatory includes several telescopes and spectrogeliographs of the extreme ultraviolet range, as well as a wide field of view coronograph operating in the HeII 304 A ionized helium line.
The purpose of the Tesis mission is to study the most dynamic solar processes (flares and coronal mass ejections), as well as round the clock monitoring of solar activity for the purpose of early prediction of geomagnetic disturbances.
On February 11, 2010, the Atlas V launch vehicle was launched from the Cape Canaveral cosmodrome in the United States.
The launch task is to put the new SDO (Solar Dynamic Observatory) into geostationary orbit[92].
For effective observation of the Sun, there are special, so called solar telescopes that are installed in many observatories around the world.
Observations of the Sun have the peculiarity that the brightness of the Sun is great, and therefore, the aperture of solar telescopes can be small.
It is much more important to get the largest possible image scale, and to achieve this goal, solar telescopes have very large focal lengths (meters and tens of meters).
It is not easy to rotate such a structure, but this is not required.
The position of the Sun in the sky is limited by a relatively narrow belt, its maximum width is 46 degrees.
Therefore, sunlight is directed using mirrors to a stationary telescope, and then projected onto a screen or viewed using darkened filters.
The sun is far from the most powerful star in existence, but it is relatively close to the Earth and therefore shines very brightly for us — 400,000 times brighter than the full Moon.
Because of this, it is extremely dangerous to look at the daytime Sun with the naked eye, and it is absolutely impossible to look through binoculars or a telescope without a special light filter — this causes irreversible damage to vision.
Observations of the Sun with the naked eye without damage to vision are possible only at sunrise or sunset (then the brightness of the Sun weakens several thousand times), or during the day with the use of light filters.
ениях a darkening light filter placed in front of the lens should also be used in binoculars or a telescope.
However, it is better to use another method — to project
Photo of the Sun with a digital camera from the Earth's surface
Through a veil of smoke
a solar image through a telescope on a white screen.
Even with a small amateur telescope, you can study sunspots in this way, and in good weather you can see granulation and torches on the surface of the Sun.
However, in this case, there is a risk of damage to the telescope itself, so before using this method, you should read the instructions for the telescope.
In particular, with this method of observing the Sun, reflector telescopes and catadioptric telescopes are at risk of damage.
In addition, for any telescope, it is in no case possible to look directly at the Sun through it without a special light filter, and when projecting an image on the screen, it is not recommended to keep it directed at the Sun for a long time, without interruptions[93].
Solar eclipses Solar eclipses are already mentioned in ancient sources[94].
However, the largest number of dated descriptions is contained in Western European medieval chronicles and annals.
For example, a solar eclipse is mentioned by Maximin of Trier, who wrote that in "538, on February 16, from the first to the third hour, there was a solar eclipse"[95].
This phenomenon occurs due to the fact that the Moon covers (eclipses) completely or partially the Sun from an observer on Earth.
A solar eclipse is possible only during the new moon, when the side of the Moon facing the Earth is not illuminated, and the Moon itself is not visible.
Eclipses are possible only if the new moon occurs near one of the two lunar nodes (the intersection point of the visible orbits of the Moon and the Sun), no further than about 12 degrees from one of them.
According to the astronomical classification, if an eclipse can be observed as complete at least somewhere on the Earth's surface, it is called complete[96].
If an eclipse can only be observed as a partial one (this happens when the cone of the Moon's shadow passes near the earth's surface, but does not touch it), the eclipse is classified as a partial one.
When an observer is in the shadow of the moon, he observes a total solar eclipse.
When it is in the penumbra region, it can observe a partial solar eclipse.
In addition to total and partial solar eclipses, there are annular eclipses.
Visually, during an annular eclipse, the Moon passes through the disk of the Sun, but it turns out to be smaller than the Sun in diameter, and cannot completely hide it.
This phenomenon is caused by a change in the angular dimensions of the Moon in the sky due to the ellipticity of its orbit[97][98].
Numerous displays of the solar eclipse on Earth in the shade of the foliage of trees, resulting from the camera obscura effect created by light passing through small gaps between the leaves.
There can be from 2 to 5 solar eclipses per year on Earth, of which no more than two are complete or annular [99][100].
On average, 237 solar eclipses occur over a hundred years, of which 160 are partial, 63 are total, and 14 are annular [101].
At a certain point on the Earth's surface, eclipses in the large phase occur quite rarely, even less often there are total solar eclipses.
So, on the territory of Moscow from the XI to the XVIII century, it was possible to observe 159 solar eclipses with a phase greater than 0.5, of which only 3 total (11.08.1124, 20.03.1140 and 7.06.1415) [102].
Another total solar eclipse occurred on August 19, 1887.
An annular eclipse could be observed in Moscow on April 26, 1827.
A very strong eclipse with a phase of 0.96 occurred on July 9, 1945.
The next total solar eclipse is expected in Moscow only on October 16, 2126.
Total solar eclipses allow us to observe the corona and the nearest vicinity of the Sun, which is extremely difficult under normal conditions (although since 1996, astronomers have been able to constantly observe the surroundings of our star thanks to the work of the SOHO satellite (Solar and Heliospheric Observatory)).
French scientist Pierre Jansen during a total solar eclipse in India on August 18, 1868, for the first time studied the chromosphere of the Sun and obtained the spectrum of a new chemical element.
This element was named after the Sun — helium[103].
In 1882, on May 17, during a solar eclipse, observers from Egypt noticed a comet flying near the Sun[104].
Sun and Earth
The spectral range of electromagnetic radiation from the Sun is very wide from radio waves [105] to X rays but its maximum intensity falls on visible light (the yellow green part of the spectrum).
For people, animals and plants, sunlight is very important.
In a significant part of them, light causes a change in the circadian rhythm.
Thus, according to some studies, a person is influenced by light of an intensity of more than 1000 lux[106], and its color is important[107].
In those areas of the Earth that receive little sunlight on average per year, for example, the tundra, a low temperature is established (up to -35 °C in winter), a short plant growth season, low biodiversity and low vegetation[108].
Even the view of the Earth from space in The green leaves of plants contain the green pigment chlorophyll.
This pigment serves as a light energy catcher in the process of photosynthesis — a complex cycle of reactions for the synthesis of organic substances from carbon dioxide and water using light energy.
One of the products of photosynthesis is oxygen.
109].
Thus, photosynthesis provides the possibility of the existence of life on Earth.
Animals exist by eating plants that accumulate the energy of the Sun in the form of the energy of chemical compounds, and breathing the oxygen released by them[110].
The Earth's surface and the lower layers of the air the troposphere, where clouds form and other meteorological phenomena occur, directly receive energy from the Sun.
The main energy inflow into the atmosphere Earth system is provided by solar radiation in the spectral range from 0.1 to 4 microns.
At the same time, in the range of 0.3 microns to 1.5-2 microns, the Earth's atmosphere is almost completely transparent to solar radiation.
In the ultraviolet region of the spectrum (for waves shorter than 0.3 microns), the radiation is absorbed mainly by the ozone layer located at altitudes of 20-60 km.
X ray and gamma radiation practically do not reach the Earth's surface[111].
The power density of the Sun's radiation at a distance of 1 astronomical unit outside the Earth's atmosphere is about 1367 W / m2 (solar constant).
According to the data for 2000-2004[112], averaged over time and over the Earth's surface, this flux is 341 W/m2[113][114] or 1.74·1017 W based on the total surface of the Earth (the total radiation of the Sun is about 2.21·109 times greater).
In addition, a stream of ionized particles (mainly helium hydrogen plasma) penetrates into the Earth's atmosphere, flowing from the solar corona at a speed of 300-1200 km / s into the surrounding outer space (solar wind).
In many areas near the poles of the planet, this leads to auroras ("northern lights").
Also, many other natural phenomena are associated with the solar wind, in particular, magnetic storms[115].
Magnetic storms, in turn, can affect terrestrial organisms.
The section of biophysics that studies such influences is called heliobiology.
Also important for living organisms is the radiation of the Sun in the ultraviolet range.
Thus, under the influence of ultraviolet light, vital vitamin D is formed[116].
With its lack, a serious disease occurs — rickets[117].
Due to the lack of ultraviolet rays, the normal intake of calcium may be disrupted, as a result of which the fragility of small blood vessels increases, the permeability of tissues increases.
However, the long term effect of ultraviolet light contributes to the development of melanoma, various types of skin cancer, accelerates aging and the appearance of wrinkles.
The ozone layer protects the Earth from excessive radiation, without which, it is believed, life would not be able to get out of the oceans at all[118].
The sun in world culture In religion and mythology Like many other natural phenomena, throughout the history of human civilization, the Sun has been an object of worship in many cultures.
The cult of the Sun existed in ancient Egypt, where the solar deity was Ra [119].
Among the Greeks, the sun god was Helios [120], who, according to legend, rode through the sky daily on his chariot.
In the Old Russian pagan pantheon there were two solar deities Horse (actually the personified sun) and Dazhbog.
In addition, the annual festive ritual cycle of the Slavs, as well as other peoples, was closely connected with the annual solar cycle, and its key moments (solstices) were personified by such characters as Kolyada (Ovsen) and Kupala.
Most peoples had a male solar deity (for example, in English, the personal pronoun "he" is used in relation to the Sun), but in Norse mythology, the Sun (Sul) is a female deity.
In East Asia, in particular, in Vietnam, the Sun is denoted by the symbol 日 (Chinese pinyin rì), although there is also another symbol -阳阳 (tai yang).
In these indigenous Vietnamese words, the words nhật and thái dương indicate that in East Asia, the Moon and the Sun were considered two opposites - yin and yang.
Both the Vietnamese and the Chinese in ancient times considered them two primary natural forces, and the Moon was considered to be associated with yin, and the Sun with yang[121].
In occultism, in occultism, the Sun is correlated with the Sefira of Tiferet (See also the Chaldean series)[122].
In the languages of the world In many Indo European languages, the Sun is denoted by a word that has the root sol.
Thus, the word sol means "Sun" in Latin and in modern Portuguese, Spanish, Icelandic, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Catalan and Galician.
In English, the word Sol is also sometimes used (mainly in a scientific context) to refer to the Sun, but the main meaning of this word is the name of the Roman god[123][124].
In Persian, sol means "solar year".
The Old Russian word sllnce, the modern Russian sun, as well as the corresponding words in many other Slavic languages come from the same root.
The currency of the state of Peru (new sol), previously called inti (the name of the Inca sun god, who occupied a key place in their astronomy and mythology), is named after the Sun, which means the sun in Quechua.
Urban legends about the Sun In 2002 and subsequent years, a message appeared in the media that in 6 years the Sun will explode (that is, it will turn into a supernova)[125].
The source of the information was called "the Dutch astrophysicist Dr. Piers van der Meer, an expert of the European Space Agency".
In fact, there is no employee with this name at ESA[126].
Moreover, astrophysics with this name does not exist at all.
The hydrogen fuel will last the Sun for several billion years.
After this time, the Sun will warm up to high temperatures (although not immediately — this process will take tens or hundreds of millions of years), but it will not become a supernova.
In principle, the sun cannot turn into a supernova due to insufficient mass.
The original message was published in the Weekly World News, a newspaper known for its penchant for publishing questionable information[127].
The hypothetical scenario of the Sun's fading is also considered in the feature film "Inferno", filmed in 2007.
The twins of the Sun now known several "doubles" of the Sun is fully analogous to our stars by mass, luminosity, temperature (±50 K) of metallicheski (±12 %), age (±1 billion years), etc. [128]
Beta venatici 18 Scorpio Twins HD 44594 37 HIP 56948
See also
Ericsson Globe — "The Sun" in the Swedish Solar System
Notes ↑ Show compactly
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2. ↑ Defining our Place in the Cosmos — the IAU and the Universal Frame of Reference (http://www.iau.org/public p ress/themes/place in cosmos/) 3.
Sun: Facts & figures (http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/p rofile.cfm?Object=Sun&Display=Facts&System=Metric).
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Stanford Solar Center.
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25. ↑ Leonid Popov.
A distant star has illuminated plans to save the Earth from the death of the Sun (http://www.membran a.ru/particle/775).
Membrana.ru — " In the face of the red giant that the Sun will turn into, there will not be so many traces of a man made civilization on our planet.
And even then not for long.
Absorption and evaporation awaits the Earth.
If the people of the distant future do not undertake a grandiose experience of moving their world. "
Checked on March 28, 2013.
Archived from the original source on April 3, 2013 (http://www.webc itation.org/6FbsOKeqL).
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Guillemot, H.; Greffoz, V. (Mars 2002).
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52. Kallenrode May Britt.
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Как американцы искали ветра в поле, а нашли радиационный пояс и как русские искали радиационный пояс, а нашли солнечный ветер, или физические эксперименты на первых искусственных спутниках Земли и открытие её радиационных поясов (ftp://ftp.izmiran.rssi.ru/pub/izmiran/space around us/Child ren/DOC/ZAVIDONOV/Zavidonov/VeterVPole.htm) // Историко астрономические исследования.
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