Orientation techniques
Measuring distances on the ground
Orientation techniques
To navigate the terrain, it means to find directions to the cardinal directions (north, south, east and west) and determine your location.
To find the direction of the cardinal directions, first determine the direction north south; after that, becoming a face to the north, the determinant will have to the right east, to the left west.
The cardinal directions are usually found by a compass, and in the absence of it - by the Sun, Moon, stars and by some signs of local objects.
Knowledge of topographic orientation is important, especially when passing through unfamiliar terrain and with poor visibility.
Topographic orientation should be understood as orientation on the terrain, i.e. determining the location of its location relative to the sides of the horizon, surrounding local objects and the terrain.
Of the numerous compass systems, the liquid compass "Sport 3"has found the widest application in tourist practice.
When using any compass, it should be remembered that in a freely suspended state, the magnetic arrow will point its ends to the north and to the south.
The arrow is located not in the direction of the true (geographical) meridian, but in the direction of the magnetic meridian.
The angle between the true meridian and the magnetic one is called the declination of the magnetic arrow (magnetic declination).
It is different for each locality and can be eastern (with a + sign) or western (with a - sign ).
The magnetic declination can be determined on the ground by sunrise and sunset or on the map.
With the help of a compass, it is most convenient and fast to determine the north, east, south, west.
To do this, you need to give the compass a horizontal position, release the arrow from the clamp, let it calm down.
Then the dark end of it will be directed to the north.
To determine the accuracy of the deviation of the direction of movement from the direction to the north or to determine the positions of terrain points in relation to the direction to the north and their reference, divisions are plotted on the compass, of which the lower ones are indicated in degree measures (the smallest division is 3°), and the upper divisions of the goniometer are in tens of "thousandths".
Degrees are counted clockwise from 0 to 360°, and the divisions of the goniometer are counted counterclockwise from 0 to 600°.
The zero division is located at the letter " C " (north), there is also a glowing triangle in the dark, which replaces the letter "C"in some compasses.
Under the letters "B" (east), "Y" (south), "3" (west) there are luminous dots.
On the movable cover of the compass there is a sighting device (sight and front sight), against which luminous pointers are fixed, which serve to indicate the direction of movement at night.
In the army, the most common compass is the Andrianov system and the artillery compass.
The Andrianov compass allows you to make readings in degrees and in thousandths.
The inscriptions on the fixed scale of degree divisions (the price of division is 3°) are given clockwise through 15°, and thousandths in the opposite direction through 500 thousandths (5-00).
The sighting device is movable.
The artillery compass is graded only in thousandths with the price of dividing 100 thousandths (1-00) clockwise.
The sighting device is stationary, and the scale (limb) rotates, which allows you to quickly combine the zero division of the limb with the northern end of the magnetic arrow without changing the position of the compass.
The mirror on the hinged lid allows you to control the orientation of the compass and count along the limb when sighting an object.
A sports compass is very convenient for scouts to use, the arrow of which is placed in a special liquid, so it quickly calms down and almost does not fluctuate when moving.
Orientation on the map.
To do this, orient a large scale map along the lines of the terrain (along straight sections of roads, channels, glades, etc.), apply a compass with a zero diameter to the line of the true meridian and judge the magnitude and direction of the magnetic declination by the deviation of the magnetic arrow.
It should be remembered that in this case it is impossible to use power lines, railway lines, communication lines, etc.for orienting maps, since metal and electric currents will affect the readings of the magnetic needle.
The magnetic declination is not a constant value.
It is a manifestation of the magnetic properties of the Earth.
On the territory of Russia, it varies quite widely.
Moreover, the magnetic declination even for the same point can be different, changing from year to year.
When the group moves along the azimuth, it is necessary to carefully maintain the direction and check the compass more often.
For a more accurate exit to the landmark, you should not assign very large distances between the turning points.
In the case of avoiding obstacles on the opposite side of the obstacle, you should notice a landmark and, having bypassed the obstacle, continue moving along the azimuth from this landmark.
By the Sun.
The places of sunrise and sunset are different according to the seasons: in winter, the Sun rises in the southeast, and sets in the southwest; in summer, the Sun rises in the northeast, and sets in the northwest; in spring and autumn, the Sun rises in the east, and sets in the west.
At noon, the sun is always in the direction of the south.
The shortest shadow from local objects occurs at 13 o'clock, and the direction of the shadow from vertically located local objects at this time will point to the north.
By the sun and the clock.
It is necessary to point the hour hand at the Sun, and the angle formed between the direction of the hour hand and the number 1 (13 o'clock) of the dial is divided by an imaginary line in half.
The line dividing this corner will indicate the direction: ahead - south, behind north.
At the same time, it should be remembered that until 13 o'clock you need to divide the left corner, and in the afternoon - the right corner.
By the Polar Star.
The North star is always located in the north.
To find the Polar Star, you must first find the constellation Ursa Major, which resembles a bucket made up of seven fairly bright stars, then mentally draw a line through the two rightmost stars of Ursa Major, on which to postpone the distance between these extreme stars five times, and then at the end of this line we will find the Polar Star, which, in turn, is located in the tail of another constellation, called Ursa Minor.
If we face the North Star, we will get a direction to the north.
By the moon.
For approximate orientation, you need to know that in summer, in the first quarter, the Moon is in the south at 20 o'clock, in the west at 2 o'clock in the morning, in the last quarter at 2 o'clock in the morning - in the east, at 8 o'clock in the morning - in the south.
When the moon is full at night, the sides of the horizon are determined in the same way as by the Sun and the clock, and the Moon is taken for the Sun.
By the melting of the snow.
It is known that the southern side of objects heats up more than the northern side, respectively, and snow melting from this side occurs faster.
This is clearly visible in early spring and during thaws in winter on the slopes of ravines, holes near trees, snow stuck to stones.
By the shadow.
At noon, the direction of the shadow (it will be the shortest) points to the north.
Without waiting for the shortest shadow, you can navigate in the following way.
Stick a stick about 1 meter long into the ground.
Mark the end of the shadow.
Wait for 10-15 minutes and repeat the procedure.
Draw a line from the first position of the shadow to the second and extend it a step beyond the second mark.
Stand with the toe of your left foot opposite the first mark, and with your right foot at the end of the line that you have drawn.
Now you are facing north.
In local subjects.
It is known that the resin protrudes more on the southern half of the trunk of a coniferous tree, ants arrange their homes on the southern side of a tree or bush and make the southern slope of the anthill more gentle than the northern one.
The bark of birch and pine trees on the northern side is darker than on the southern side, and tree trunks, rocks, and rock ledges are more densely covered with moss and lichens.
By buildings.
The buildings that are quite strictly oriented on the sides of the horizon include churches, mosques, synagogues.
Altars and chapels of Christian and Lutheran churches face east, bell towers face west.
The lowered edge of the lower crossbar of the cross on the dome of the Orthodox church is facing south, the raised one is facing north.
The altars of Catholic churches are located on the western side.
The doors of synagogues and Muslim mosques face approximately to the north, their opposite sides are directed: mosques - to Mecca in Arabia, lying on the meridian of Voronezh, and synagogues - to Jerusalem in Palestine, lying on the meridian of Dnepropetrovsk.
Idols, pagodas, Buddhist monasteries are facing south with their facades.
The exit from the yurts is usually made to the south.
In rural houses, more windows are cut in residential premises from the south side, and the paint on the walls of buildings from the south side fades more and has a withered color.
Determining the local time without a clock: if the clock is broken or lost, the local time can be found with relative accuracy by measuring the azimuth from the Sun.
Having determined the azimuth, its value must be divided by 15 (the value of the rotation of the Sun in 1 hour), the resulting number will indicate the local time at the time of reference.
For example, the azimuth of the Sun is 180°, so the time will be 12 hours.
Orientation in the forest.
There are recommendations in the literature for determining the sides of the horizon by the crown of trees.
But the indication that the crown of trees on the southern side is more luxurious, and the annual growth rings of wood on the stump of a cut tree are wider from the south than from the north, is not always confirmed.
The fact is that in a remote forest, trees cover the neighboring trees located to the north of them with their shadow.
Therefore, longer and thicker branches in the middle of the forest can be directed not only to the south, but also to the north, east, west, i.e. to where there is more free space.
In this regard, the annual growth of the next layer of wood is formed from the side from which the tree develops better.
So, not necessarily from the south side.
And if we also take into account the fact that the development of the crown of trees, as well as the width of the growth of wood, is constantly affected by the direction of winds, moisture, then the conclusion is clear.
But it cannot be true for all regions of the country.
An exception may be the North, where there is much less heat and light from the sun than moisture, and where trees develop better towards the south.
In the middle latitudes of a temperate climate, in particular on the territory of Ukraine, only trees standing in the open can determine the north south direction.
The sides of the horizon in the forest can be determined by the bark of trees.
It should be remembered that the southern side of the trees, receiving more heat and light than the northern side, has a drier and lighter bark.
This is especially noticeable in coniferous forests.
In addition, on the more illuminated side of the trees there are characteristic inflows and clots of resin that retain a light amber color for a long time.
It should be borne in mind that pine trunks are covered with a secondary crust.
On the northern side, this crust is formed much less often than on the southern side.
And after the rain, the pine trunk turns black from the north.
This is due to the fact that the secondary crust, which forms on the shady side of the trunk and goes higher along it than on the southern side, swells and dries slowly during rain.
This creates the impression of the black color of the northern side of the pine trunk.
The sides of the horizon can also be determined by deciduous trees.
So, the trunks of aspens, and especially poplars, are covered with moss and lichens from the north.
And even if the lichen has grown all over the tree, there is more of it on the northern side, where it is more moist and dense.
This is especially noticeable on the lower part of the trunk.
And the bark of the white birch on the south side is always whiter compared to the north side.
Cracks and irregularities, growths cover the birch on the north side.
And given that the birch is very sensitive to winds, the slope of its trunk will also help to navigate in the forest.
To determine the sides of the horizon, you can use large stones and boulders.
Their northern side is covered with lichens and moss, which do not like heat and light.
And the soil near such a stone will help if there are no lichens and moss: the soil on the north side of such a stone is more moist than on the south.
Its inhabitants will also help you navigate in the forest.
So, the squirrel arranges its home only in hollows located on the opposite side of the prevailing winds.
And the anthills are located on the south side of a tree or stump.
Moreover, its southern side is sloping, the northern side is steeper.
In spring, the snow melts faster on the slopes of ravines, hollows, recesses facing south.
The grass in spring is higher and thicker on the southern side of individual stones, buildings, forest edges, and in summer, with prolonged heat, it remains greener on the northern side.
In the cultural forest, clearings are cut along the lines: north south, east west.
On the column at the intersections of the squares in the upper part of the number the numbering of the opposite square.
The edge of the column between the two faces with the smallest digits shows the direction to the north.
The numbering of blocks in the CIS goes from west to east and further to the south.
In large tracts of cultural forest, it is possible to determine the sides of the horizon by glades, which, as a rule, are cut strictly along the lines of north south and east west, as well as by the inscriptions of the block numbers on the pillars installed at the intersections of the glades.
On each such column in its upper part and on each of the four gr anya puts down the numbers the numbering of the opposite blocks of the forest; the edge between the two faces with the smallest numbers shows the direction to the north.
Measuring distances on the ground
In the conditions
it is very important for travelers to be able to determine the distances and sizes of objects without the help of devices.
The ability of a person to assess by eye without the help of devices, the distance to the objects around him and the size of objects is called an eye.
This is an individual feature of a person, but it can be developed through constant and patient exercises.
The ocular determination of distances is performed in various ways.
You can determine the distance by the visible details.
For a more accurate determination of the distance by visible details, it is necessary to follow the data given in the table.
Table of visibility of some objects during the day.
Name of the item
Distance
Large towers, churches, grain elevators
16-21 km
Windmills
11 km
Villages and large buildings
9 km
Factory Pipes
6 km
Individual houses
5 km
Windows in houses without bindings
4 km
Pipes on roofs
3 km
Individual trees, people
2 km
Kilometer poles and other poles
2 km
Horses (legs differ)
700 m
Bindings on the windows
530 m
The human head
400 m
Clothing colors
270 m
Tiles and boards on roofs
210 m
Buttons
160 m
People's faces
160 m
Facial expression
110 m
Eyes
60 m
Whites of the eyes
20 m
Table of visibility of some objects at night
The phenomenon of Distance
The glow of the fire for 6-8 km
Flashes of rifle shots for 1.5-2 km
The light of a normal flashlight for 1.5 km
The light of a lit match for 0.5 km
The light of a cigarette for 0.5 km
In the conditions of travel, there is a need to measure the distance to inaccessible objects.
For example, it is necessary to measure the distance to a person walking along the river on the opposite bank.
To do this, you should extend your hand in the direction of the pedestrian's movement and look with one right eye at the end of the finger, waiting for the person to block it.
And at the same time, it is necessary to close the right eye and open the left.
The person will jump back as if.
It is necessary to immediately count how many steps the pedestrian will take before he again comes level with the finger of the researcher's outstretched hand.
The distance from the researcher to the person on the other side of the river is determined from the proportion: D:I =L:G, from where D=PX(L:P).
Example: The distance between the pupils of the eyes G=6 cm, from the end of the outstretched arm to the eye L=60 cm.
A pedestrian has walked a distance N equal to 18 steps; the average step is 75 cm.
Substituting these values into the formula, we get: D= 18X(60:6) = 180 steps or 180X0.
75=135 m.
When crossing a river or stream on the route, it becomes necessary to determine the width of the river.
This can be done with a blade of grass.
To do this, it is necessary to choose two noticeable objects on the opposite bank of the river in the immediate vicinity of it, and, standing on the other side of the river with outstretched hands, in which a blade of grass is clamped, you should close the gap between the selected objects.
One eye should be closed.
After that, you should fold the blade of grass in half, move away from the shore until the distance between the selected objects is closed with a folded blade of grass.
Having measured the gap between two standing points, we get the distance to the opposite bank, i.e. the width of the river.
Determining the size of the shadow and its height.
The height of objects can be determined by the shadow of the desired object, by its height.
To determine the height of an object by its shadow, it is necessary to put a stick in the shadow of this object (for example, a tree) near its top and measure the length of the part of the stick covered with shadow.
Then WB: AB=DG :AG, from where DG=AG(WB : AB), i.e., dividing the length of the shadow covered part of the stick by the distance from it to the top of the tree shadow and multiplying this number by the length of the shadow, we get the height of the object (tree).
The height of the object according to its height is determined as follows.
It is necessary to move away from the tree at a certain distance AD, lie down with your head to point A and your feet, between which the stick is clamped, to the tree at point B so that our ray of vision passes through the top of the stick to the top of the tree.
Then 5D=LDX X( SV AB).
Determination of the distance by standards.
The distance can be determined using standards - accurate measures.
The standards can be different parts of the human body, measurement data of different objects with standard dimensions:
1.
10 cm is the length of an adult's index finger.
To measure it, it must be bent at a right angle to the palm.
If the finger is shorter than 10 cm, then its length must be recorded and remembered.
You will need it during the campaign;
2.
10 cm - the distance between the freely separated ends of the little finger and thumb, when the hand is lying on the tablet without tension;
3.
the height of a person with a raised arm, if the hand is bent back;
4. height from the floor to the waist of a person;
5.
the distance between the fingertips in the "hands to the sides" position is equal to the height of most people;
6. The average stride length of an adult is approximately half of his height when measured to eye level.
It is practically established that the length of one's step can be determined by the formula: P/4 +37, where P is the height of a person in centimeters; 4 and 37 are constant numbers.
For example: with a height of 120 cm, the step length will be equal to - 120/4 +37=30+37=67 see
7.
The distance from the eye to the base of the index finger of the outstretched hand is 57 - 60 cm.
This value can be used to find the value of any angle.
It is known that at the specified distance, each centimeter has an angular value of 1°.
Since the length of the index finger is 10 cm, it is enough to bend it at the base at a right angle to the line of the entire hand and the meter is ready: an angle of 10°is formed between the end of the index finger and its base, i.e. the bend.
The determination of the value of any angle in degrees is done as follows: the index finger bent at a right angle at the base on the outstretched hand is set at eye level.
It is necessary to look with one eye, preferably with the right, and keep your head straight, all the time in one position.
After that, they begin to lay their measure in a straight line connecting two objects, between which the angle is determined.
By aligning the end of the finger with one of the objects, it should be noted what the other end of the finger is against.
This will be 10°.
Then, moving the finger in a straight line and combining its end with the marked place opposite which the finger bend was before, we find a new place of bending - here the next 10°ends.
This is already 20° from the beginning.
And so you need to reach the second object, which limits the angle.
It is quite possible that it will lie somewhere in the middle of the finger.
In this case, it is important to determine by eye how many tenths of the finger will be between its end and the sighted object.
This number of whole degrees will need to be added to the tens of degrees measured before this.
For example, the finger is laid completely 3 times, after which there is still 4/10 of its length.
This means that two objects lie at an angle of 2G".
While performing this work, you can not change the position of the hand relative to the body body and the eye.
It is necessary to slowly turn the body after the finger.
8. From the end of the thumb to the end of the little finger, if you hold your outstretched hand directly at eye level and perpendicular to the direction of vision, - 22.5°.
This measure can be used to measure large angles (from 45°).
The above ratios between the parts of the human body are approximate and are given as constant values for a person of average height.
In children and adolescents, even of the same age, these values are not the same, since this is due to growth and individual characteristics.
Therefore, it is desirable that every tourist, preparing for a hike, determines and records his measurements.
Such items that have constant standard sizes (a sapper's shovel, a tourist hatchet, a matchbox, a pencil, a coin) can also serve as standards.
Tourists always have these items with them, and they can always be used.
Depending on the area of travel of southern tourists, you can make a table of distances yourself according to the degree of visibility of local objects characteristic of this area.
Measuring the distance in steps.
To get the most accurate results, you need to know the step length.
Both when checking the length of the step, and in field conditions when determining the distance, it is best to consider the steps as triples, since under this condition the distance traveled will be obtained directly in meters.
The accuracy of this method of measuring distances depends on the nature of the terrain, on the experience of the observer, on weather conditions.
You can measure the distance and the time spent on walking.
To do this, you need to notice the number of hours and minutes spent to travel a known distance.
A person walks as many kilometers in 1 hour as he takes steps in 3 seconds (with a step length of 0.83 m).
In 1 hour, a person passes 5-6 km.
It should be borne in mind that in hiking conditions, many natural obstacles affect the walking speed.
So, at an altitude of 2500 - 3500 m above sea level, the speed of movement decreases by 25%, above 3500 by 50%.
When driving in the thaw, on clay and saline soil, the speed slows down by 50%, on a hummocky meadow and on virgin land with a dense grass cover - by 25%.
A strong headwind with thick dust can reduce a person's walking speed by 50%, a downpour, a blizzard - by 10-15%.
A table of the average sizes of some objects for estimating distances
Name of the item
Distance (in meters)
Pedestrian height 1.75
The height of the rider is 2.50
Horse length 2.13
The height of the cyclist is 1.75
Height to uzova passenger car 1,90
The width of the car body is 1.50
Width of the truck body
2,00
The height of the railway car is 4.25
The height of the railway booth is 4.00
The width of the railway track is 1.52
The length of the sapper shovel is 1.10
The length of the outstretched arm is 0.60
The solution of the hand between the ends of the thumb and index finger is 0.18
Table of the audibility of some sounds
Sound
Distance
Driving a car on the highway for 2 km
Driving a car on a dirt road
for 1 km
The hum of an airplane in the silence of the night for 40 km
A rifle shot from 1 km away
The sound of horse hooves in the silence of the night for 0.5-1 km
The crash of falling trees for 800 m
Driving stakes manually for 300 m
Logging, axe blows for 300 m
Conversation (indistinctly audible) for 200 m
Conversation (you can make out the words) for 75 m
Cough for 50 m
Steps over 30 m
