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BACK TO Galileo Galilei
Galileo Galilei
February 15, 1564 - January 8, 1642
Biography The name of this man caused both admiration and hatred among his contemporaries.
Nevertheless, he went down in the history of world science not only as a follower of Giordano Bruno, but also as one of the greatest scientists of the Italian Renaissance.
He was born on February 15, 1564 in the city of Pisa in a noble but impoverished family.
His father Vincenzo Galilei was a talented musician and composer, but art did not provide a livelihood, and the father of the future scientist earned money by selling cloth.
Until the age of eleven, Galileo lived in Pisa and studied at an ordinary school, and then moved to Florence with his family.
Here he continued his education at the Benedictine monastery, where he studied grammar, arithmetic, rhetoric and other subjects.
At the age of seventeen, Galileo entered the University of Pisa and began to prepare for the profession of a doctor.
At the same time, out of curiosity, he read works on mathematics and mechanics, in particular Euclid and Archimedes.
The latter was always called his teacher by Galileo later.
Due to the straitened financial situation, the young man had to leave the University of Pisa and return to Florence.
At home, Galileo independently engaged in an in depth study of mathematics and physics, which he was very interested in.
In 1586, he wrote his first scientific work "Small hydrostatic scales", which brought him some fame and allowed him to meet several scientists.
Under the patronage of one of them — the author of the "Textbook of Mechanics" Guido Ubaldo del Monte, Galileo received a chair of mathematics at the University of Pisa in 1589.
At the age of twenty five, he became a professor where he studied, but did not complete his education.
Galileo taught students mathematics and astronomy, which he expounded, of course, according to Ptolemy.
It is at this time that the experiments that he set up, throwing various bodies from the leaning Tower of Pisa, to check whether they fall in accordance with the teachings of Aristotle — heavy faster than light.
The answer was negative.
In his work "On Motion" (1590), Galileo criticized the Aristotelian doctrine of the fall of bodies.
In it, by the way, he wrote: "If reason and experience coincide in something, it does not matter to me that it contradicts the opinion of the majority."
Galileo's establishment of the isochrony of small oscillations of the pendulum — the independence of the period of its oscillations from the amplitude belongs to the same period.
He came to this conclusion by watching the chandeliers swing in the Cathedral of Pisa and noting the time by the pulse on his hand...
Guido del Monte highly appreciated Galileo as a mechanic and called him "The Archimedes of modern times".
Galileo's criticism of Aristotle's physical representations turned numerous supporters of the ancient Greek scientist against him.
The young professor became very uncomfortable in Pisa, and he accepted an invitation to take the chair of mathematics at the famous University of Padua.
The Padua period is the most fruitful and happy in the life of Galileo.
Here he found a family, linking his fate with Marina Gamba, who gave birth to two daughters, Virginia (1600) and Livia (1601); later a son, Vincenzo (1606), was born.
Since 1606, Galileo has been engaged in astronomy.
In March 1610, his work was published under the title - "The Starry Messenger".
It is unlikely that there has ever been so much sensational astronomical information reported in one work, which was also made literally during several night observations in January — February of the same year 1610.
Having learned about the invention of the telescope and having a good own workshop, Galileo makes several samples of spotting tubes, constantly improving their quality.
As a result, the scientist managed to make a telescope with a magnification of 32 times.
On the night of January 7, 1610, he directs the telescope to the sky.
What he saw there — the lunar landscape, mountain ranges and peaks that cast shadows, valleys and seas already led to the idea that the Moon was similar to the Earth — a fact that did not support religious dogmas and the teachings of Aristotle about the special position of the Earth among the celestial bodies.
A huge white stripe in the sky — the Milky Way when viewed through the telescope, it was clearly divided into individual stars.
Near Jupiter, the scientist noticed small stars (first three, then another), which changed their position relative to the planet the next night.
Galileo, with his kinematic perception of natural phenomena, did not need to think for a long time — before him are the moons of Jupiter!
— another argument against the exceptional position of the Earth.
Galileo discovered the existence of four moons of Jupiter.
Later, Galileo discovered the phenomenon of Saturn (although he did not understand what it was) and discovered the phases of Venus.
Observing how sunspots move on the solar surface, he found that the Sun also rotates around its axis.
Based on his observations, Galileo concluded that rotation around the axis is characteristic of all celestial bodies.
Observing the starry sky, he was convinced that the number of stars is much more than can be seen with a simple eye.
So Galileo confirmed Giordano Bruno's idea that the vastness of the universe is infinite and inexhaustible.
After that, Galileo concluded that the heliocentric system of the world proposed by Copernicus is the only correct one.
Galileo's telescopic discoveries were met by many with distrust, even with hostility, but the supporters of the Copernican doctrine, and, above all, Kepler, who immediately published "Conversation with the Star Messenger", reacted to them with delight, seeing in this confirmation of the correctness of their beliefs.
The "Starry Messenger" brought the scientist European fame.
The Tuscan Duke Cosimo II de ' Medici invited Galileo to take the position of a court mathematician.
It promised a comfortable existence, free time for studying science, and the scientist accepted the offer.
In addition, it allowed Galileo to return to his homeland, to Florence.
Now, having a powerful patron in the person of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Galileo begins to propagate the teachings of Copernicus more and more boldly.
The clerical circles are alarmed.
Galileo's authority as a scientist is high, his opinion is listened to.
So, many will decide, the doctrine of the movement of the Earth is not just one of the hypotheses of the structure of the world, which simplifies astronomical calculations.
The concern of the ministers of the church about the triumphant spread of the Copernican doctrine is well explained by a letter from Cardinal Roberto Bellarmino to one of his correspondents "When they claim that under the assumption that the Earth is moving and the Sun is stationary, all the observed phenomena are explained better than under... according to the geocentric system of Ptolemy, this is perfectly said and does not involve any danger; and this is enough for mathematics; but when they begin to say that the Sun actually stands at the center of the world and that it only rotates around itself, but does not move from east to west, and that the Earth is in the third heaven and rotates around
the Sun with great speed, this is a very dangerous thing, and not only because it irritates all philosophers and learned theologians, but also because it harms the holy faith, since it implies the falsity of the Holy Faith.
The Scriptures."
Denunciations of Galileo poured into Rome.
In 1616, at the request of the Congregation of the Holy Index (an ecclesiastical institution responsible for issues of permits and prohibitions), eleven prominent theologians examined the teachings of Copernicus and came to the conclusion that it was false.
On the basis of this conclusion, the heliocentric doctrine was declared heretical, and Copernicus ' book "On the circulation of the Celestial Spheres" was included in the index of forbidden books.
At the same time, all books that supported this theory were banned — those that existed and those that will be written in the future.
Galileo was summoned from Florence to Rome and, in a mild but categorical form, demanded to stop promoting heretical ideas about the structure of the world.
The exhortation was conducted by the same Cardinal Bellarmino.
Galileo was forced to comply.
He did not forget how Giordano Bruno's persistence in the "heresy"ended.
Moreover, as a philosopher, he knew that" heresy " today becomes the truth tomorrow.
In 1623, under the name of Urban VIII, Galileo's friend Cardinal Maffeo Barberini became pope.
The scientist is in a hurry to Rome.
He hopes to achieve the abolition of the prohibition of the" hypothesis " of Copernicus, but in vain.
The Pope explains to Galileo that now, when the Catholic world is torn apart by heresy, it is unacceptable to question the truth of the holy faith.
Galileo returns to Florence and continues to work on a new book, without losing hope of ever publishing his work.
In 1628, he once again visited Rome to scout the situation and find out the attitude of the highest hierarchs of the church to the teachings of Copernicus.
In Rome, he meets the same intolerance, but it does not stop him.
Galileo finishes the book and in 1630 presents it to the Congregation.
The censored review of Galileo's work lasted for two years, followed by a ban.
Then Galileo decided to publish his work in his native Florence.
He managed to deftly deceive the local censors, and in 1632 the book was published.
It was called "A dialogue about the two most important systems of the world — Ptolemaic and Copernican" and was written as a dramatic work.
For censorship reasons, Galileo is forced to be careful the book is written in the form of a dialogue between two supporters of Copernicus and one adherent of Aristotle and Ptolemy, and each of the interlocutors tries to understand the other's point of view, assuming its validity.
In the preface, Galileo is forced to state that, since the teaching of Copernicus is contrary to the holy faith and is forbidden, he is not at all a supporter of it and in the book the theory of Copernicus is only discussed, not approved.
But neither the preface nor the form of presentation could hide the truth, the dogmas of Aristotelian physics and Ptolemaic astronomy suffer such an obvious collapse here, and the Copernican theory triumphs so convincingly that, contrary to what was said in the preface, Galileo's personal attitude to the Copernican teaching and his conviction of the validity of this teaching do not cause doubts.
However, it follows from the presentation that Galileo still believed in the uniform and circular motion of the planets around the Sun, i.e. he failed to evaluate and did not accept Kepler's laws of planetary motion.
He also did not agree with Kepler's assumptions about the causes of the tides (the attraction of the Moon!), instead developing his own theory of this phenomenon, which turned out to be incorrect.
The church authorities were furious.
The sanctions followed immediately.
The sale of the "Dialogue" was banned, and Galileo was summoned to Rome for trial.
In vain the seventy year old elder pr he presented the certificate of three doctors that he was ill.
They reported from Rome that if he did not come voluntarily, he would be brought by force, in shackles.
And the elderly scientist set off on his way.
"I arrived in Rome," writes Galileo in one of his letters, " on February 10, 1633, and put myself at the mercy of the Inquisition and the holy father...
First I was locked up in the Trinity castle on the mountain, and the next day the commissioner of the Inquisition visited me and took me away in his carriage.
On the way, he asked me various questions and expressed the wish that I would stop the scandal caused in Italy by my discovery concerning the movement of the earth...
To all the mathematical proofs that I could oppose to him, he answered me with the words from the Holy Scripture "The earth was and will be motionless forever and ever."
The investigation lasted from April to June 1633, and on June 22, in the same church, almost at the same place where Giordano Bruno heard the death sentence, Galileo, on his knees, pronounced the text of the abdication offered to him.
Under the threat of torture, Galileo, refuting the accusation that he violated the ban on promoting the Copernican doctrine, was forced to admit that he "unconsciously" contributed to confirming the correctness of this doctrine, and publicly renounce it.
By doing so, the humiliated Galileo understood that the process initiated by the Inquisition would not stop the triumphal march of the new teaching, he himself needed time and opportunity for further development of the ideas laid down in the "Dialogue" so that they would become the beginning of a classical system of the world in which there would be no place for church dogmas.
This process has caused irreparable damage to the Church.
Galileo did not give up, although in the last years of his life he had to work in the most difficult conditions.
At his villa in Arcetri, he was under house arrest (under the constant supervision of the Inquisition).
Here is what he writes, for example, to his friend in Paris: "In Arcetri, I live under the strictest prohibition not to go to the city and not to receive many friends at the same time, nor to communicate with those whom I receive except in an extremely reserved manner...
And it seems to me that... my current prison will be replaced only by the long and narrow one that awaits us all."
For two years, Galileo has been in prison writing " Conversations and Mathematical Proofs...", where, in particular, he sets out the basics of dynamics.
When the book is finished, the entire Catholic world (Italy, France, Germany, Austria) refuses to print it.
In May 1636, the scientist negotiates the publication of his work in Holland, and then secretly sends the manuscript there.
The Conversations were published in Leiden in July 1638, and the book got to Archetri almost a year later — in June 1639.
By that time, Galileo had become blind (years of hard work, age and the fact that the scientist often looked at the Sun without good light filters affected) he could only feel his offspring with his hands.
Galileo died on January 8, 1642.
Only in November 1979, Pope John Paul II officially recognized that the Inquisition made a mistake in 1633, forcing the scientist to renounce the Copernican theory by force.
This was the first and only case in the history of the Catholic Church of a public recognition of the injustice of the condemnation of a heretic, committed 337 years after his death.
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