E. A. Sherwood
The calendar of the ancient Celts and Germans
Reports on the calendar systems of the ancient Celts and Germans are very sparse and fragmentary.
Some provide information on astronomy, while others provide information on the so called civil time calculation.
It should also be remembered that the very composition of the Celtic and Germanic peoples was heterogeneous, and this affected the emergence and functioning of calendar systems as a whole.
The Celtic tribes were divided into four major branches: Irish Gaelic and Cambro Cornish (British Isles), Breton and Gallic (on the continent).
There were numerous branches from these large groups.
All the Celts came into contact with the Romans very early: in the first century AD , Pliny, telling about the customs and customs of the Celtic priests of Gaul (druids), reported that they associated the counting of the year and months with the change of the phases of the Moon.
According to Gaius Julius Caesar (I century BC I century AD), the Gauls kept count not by day, but by night.
Consequently, they built their astronomical calendar on the lunar or lunisolar year.
Strabo (63 BC – 23 AD) noted that the Celtiberians worshipped the deity of the Moon.
On ancient Celtic coins, the motif of the Moon occupies a leading place.
Observing the change of its phases, the disappearance and appearance, the Celts came to the conclusion that death does not mean the end, and birth, aging, death, as in the case of the Moon, lead to a new life.
This basic rhythm governs all natural phenomena and is expressed in the opposition not only of life to death, but also of the seasons to each other, as well as day and night.
In ancient Irish laws, expressions like "three nights" or "nine nights"are very common; "the year before this evening"; the hospitality was provided for "three nights" or "Kay did not sleep for nine nights and nine days", etc.
In Old Irish, "the night before the day" sounds like "oidche samain", i.e. "the night of samain", the night before November 1; "Saturday night" — "oidche sathuirn", i.e. the night connecting Friday with Saturday, etc.
The concept of "night" was interpreted as "night together with half the light" of the next day.
Among the Celts, the year (Ancient Celtic bleido, Cambrian blwydd, Breton bloaz) was divided into winter and summer.
In ancient Irish laws, the year was defined as "dá se mis", i.e. " twice six months"; in Gaelic sources, the definition of not a year, but its two half — years is more common (banner blwydyn — half a year from the Cambrian hunter, hanner and Cornish hunter half).
For half years, larger periods of one and a half or two and a half years were added up (3 and 5 half years, respectively).
7 winter and 5 summer months were taken into account.
Despite the differences in duration, they were considered as half years: samain — "winter", beltane — "summer".
The division of the year into three seasons, like the Germans, appeared later.
Traces of this division are preserved in ancient Welsh laws: summer (Old Celtic samo, Irish sam or samrad, Cambrian hâf, Cornish haf), winter (Old Celtic gimo, or gaimo, Irish gemred), spring (Old Celtic ersâko, Irish errach) and autumn (Old Celtic foghamhar).
Among the ancient Irlanders, winter (gemred) covered the period from November 1 to February 1, spring (errach) — the period from February 1 to May 1, summer (samrad) — the period from May 1 to August 1, and autumn (foghamhar) — the period from August 1 to the beginning of winter.
It is not known whether the beginning of the year was the same for all Celts.
According to ancient Irish sources, the civil reckoning of the length of the year was concluded between one and the next holiday of the deity Tara, i.e. from November to November, and the year was often called "winter", since the holiday of Tara began in the first days of samen (winter).
The astronomical calculation of the duration of the year is unknown, although according to the calendar from Coligny, which will be discussed below, the year was considered as lunisolar, since the months numbered 30 and 29 days (354 or 355 days).
The 30 day month existed for the alignment of the lunar and solar (365 days) years.
But the technique of achieving this is not disclosed in the sources.
The ancient Bretons and Gauls have so — called "additional days" in the number of 12 (cf.Breton gourdeziou from dez — "day"; Gaelic dyddiou from dydd - "day"), with which various superstitions are associated among the people.
The month (Ancient Celtic mêns, Irish mí, Cambrian mîs, New Breton miz) was divided into two parts: "light" — from the new moon to the full moon and "dark" — from the full moon to the transition of the crescent moon to the moon.
According to the calendar from Coligny and ancient Irish texts, they were "three times 5 days" (Irish coithe, cuicthe from coic — five; cf.
Cambrian pymthegnos, pythefnos from pymp — five).
The date of the full moon stood out especially.
However, there were other groupings of days, such as nomad 9 days, dechmad 10 days, etc.
The 7 day week appeared among the Celts under Christian influence.
In November 1897, in the town of Bourgogne, near Lyon, during archaeological excavations in the community of Coligny on the territory of the former settlement of the ancient Celtic tribe of Sequani, two bronze tables of Gallo Roman time were discovered.
There are 121 fragments with inscriptions in the Ancient Celtic language preserved on them.
However, many words are abbreviated and cannot be deciphered.
The tables are engraved with a calendar of 62 months, placed sequentially in 5 years for 12 months.
2 more months are added to them at the beginning of the row and in the middle of it.
Samon is listed as the first month of the year, and cantlos is the twelfth.
The etymology of many names is unclear: 1) samon (cf. Irish sam or Ancient Celtic samo — "summer");
2) dumann;
3) ruiros;
4) anagantios;
5) ogron (iu? - the time of the beginning cold weather?);
6) cutios;
7) giamon (iu? cf. ancient Celtic gaiamo, gaimo, gimo — "winter");
8) simiuisonn;
9) equos; 10) elembiu; 11) edrini; 12) cantlos.
Samon and giamon are separated by 6 months, and they determine the half year summer and winter.
The names of the months are preceded by either the sign " M "or the letter combination" MID", i.e. " month " (cf.Breton miz, Cornish mis).
Below, under the names of the months, follow "mat" (or "m") and "anm": the first — when indicating a 30 day month, the second — for a 29 day month.
The month equos is an exception; although it is marked with "anm" and should have 29 days, it consists of 30 days.
We can assume that equos alternates between 29 and 30 days.
In general, the calendar looks like this:
1st — samon "mat" (30 days)
2nd — dumann " anm " (29 days)
3rd — ruiros " mat " (30 days)
4th — Anagantios " anm " (29 days)
5th — ogron " mat " (30 days)
6th — cutios " mat " (30 days)
7th — giamon " anm " (29 days)
8th — simiuisonn "mat" (30 days)
9th equos " anm " (30 days)
10th — elembiu " anm " (29 days)
11th — edrini " mat " (30 days)
12th cantlos " anm " (29 days)
Each full moon month is divided into two parts — 15 days or 15 and 14 days (full and empty months).
The second part is always designated as ATENOUX, i.e. "big night", or "night of the full moon".
In the inscription at the end of an empty (incomplete) month, where there is still one day in the full month, the word "diuertomu" (or "djuertio, djuertomu, diuortomu", etc.) is written, which translates as "turn", "rotation" or "return" of the new moon.
In the first half of the month, the days are listed under Roman numerals from I to XV, in the second from I to XIIII or XV.
On the left are the letters and letter combinations "D", "N", "MD", "NSDS", which means:" day "— for" D "and" MD "(dydd)," night "— for" N "(nos), the time from mid — night to noon for"NSDS".
The time contained in these sections could have a different character.
Before "D" or " MD " there are very often signs +I, I+I, II+, i.e. an unfavorable, ordinary and favorable day.
Thus, in the calendar of the ancient Celts, the month had nothing in common with the modern one.
This calendar was superimposed on the astronomical one, characterizing certain days, groups of days, months as favorable and unfavorable.
Each added day of the month bore the name of one of the 30 months that followed each other.
This tradition is reflected in the preservation of the so called "great days" (des gourdeziou) among the Bretons: the first 12 days of January consolidate the nature of the time that will be reflected in the future during the next 12 months.
There is no permanent place for a month of 30 days in this calendar, although it is most often located before giamon, i.e. at the end of the summer half year.
Its name is giallos, there is no "M" sign with it.
According to this calendar, the druids, according to the phases of the Moon, determined the days that fell on holidays and their duration.
The moon was revered as the "mistress" of fertility, and its rhythm was obeyed by four large seasonal holidays, the names of which are preserved only in the Irish language.
This is the so called civil calendar.
As already mentioned, from November 1, the Celts began to celebrate the celebration of samain( samain; according to the calendar from Coligny — samon, samonios).
The word is translated as "connection", "union".
It was a celebration of the night that united and connected two worlds: the earthly world of people and the otherworldly world of the dead sid (sid).
On this night, according to the belief of the Celts, it was possible not only to freely communicate with the inhabitants of the other world, but also the dead themselves could visit the living.
It was a holiday with which the British Celts began the New Year.
On the night of Samen, the druids burned gifts to the gods at the stake.
In Ireland, back in the XIX century.
on this night, livestock was held between two blazing bonfires, believing that this rite would protect cattle from diseases throughout the year.
The samen holiday did not refer to either the past year or the future year.
It followed immediately after the summer (sam) and was considered by the Celts from two sides — dark and light.
The beginning of daylight was celebrated on May 1, on the Beltain holiday, dedicated to the god Lugu, who corresponded to the Roman Mercury, and the date of the largest druid gatherings.
On August 1, Lugnasad Day was celebrated (Lugnasad — "meeting in honor of the Meadow", or, according to another version, "the marriage of the Meadow").
According to the belief of the Celts, the Meadow on this day acted as a deity of fertility, once giving its riches.
It is a holiday of autumn and harvest.
In Gaul, during the period of Roman rule, it was replaced by a Meeting of the Gauls (Concilium Galliarum) in Lyon, at which the emperor, not the god Lug, was glorified.
On February 1, imbolc was celebrated (imbolc — lustration, purification after winter).
This holiday fixed the poles of the calendar time — the beginning of winter (samain) and summer (beltain).
Subsequently, the holiday of Imbolk was replaced by the day of St. Brigitte, and then the Holy Virgin, while the feast of the God of the dead on November 1 became the day of All Saints.
The transition of the ancient Celts from the lunar to the solar year is reflected in mythology: stories about the struggle of the deities who represented the lunar and solar cults or the story of the god Lug — the lunar solar hero who gives birth to the son of Kukkhulin, the famous solar hero of the ancient Celts, etc.
The symbolism of the secret numbers of the Celts also clearly shows the post foam statement in the Celtic calendar cycle of the solar principle.
It is characteristic that the orientation of the ancient Celts also included the basic metaphysical concepts of the calendar cycle: north (ichtar) — the bottom and the left side; south (tûas) — the top and the right side.
The clear half of the world is the world of the living, when the Sun goes "south" (up) from east to west.
At this time, the bright gods reign.
If the Sun goes down "north" from west to east during the night, then power comes to the dead and mysterious and gloomy gods.
This movement was the annual cycle.
That is why the ancient Celts turned to the right when casting spells of unpleasant omens.
The entrances to the cities and villages of Gaul were always located in such a way that the wagons entering there had to turn to the right.
But before Romanization, the Celts took into account the solar year only in the second place.
In order to equalize the solar year with the lunar one, i.e. the main one, it was necessary to proceed from the ratio of 12 and 1/3 = 37 : 3, namely: 37 synodic (lunar) months should be calculated for 3 solar years, and then the difference will be (29,5306 × 37 − 365,24 × 3 = 3,1) only 3 days.
The ancient Celtic calendar was transformed very quickly and earlier than the old Germanic calendar, first under the influence of Romanization, and then when the Celts adopted Christianity.
This process is clearly reflected in the modern names of the months:
Irish Gaelic Cornish Breton 1.
gionbhar, ceadmihi ceudmhios genver guenveur 2.
feabhra, Faoillidh faoilteach huevral c'huevrer 3.
mart, marta main merh meurs 4.
abran, abraon, diblin aibreann ebrall ebrel 5.
ceideam, bealtuinne bealtuin mizme ma;
6. ceadshamh, mijabhuinn ogmhios epham mezevenn 7.
jul, miosbuidhe, buidhemios jul gorephan gouzre, mezvennicq 8.
lughnas.
lunasd, milananas flathail, rioghail east eaust 9.
seichlmi, mi fionnfoloi, mi mios, meadonach guerda, gala guengolo 10.
oichlmi, osmhadhmi, shearri ochdmios hedra hezre 11.
naoimhi, midhu, gamh naoimhios dui du 12.
michrundu dubhlachd kevardin qerdu, qerzu
An equal influence is also observed in the names of the days of the week (Old Irish sechtmaine, Gaelic seachduin, Old Cornish seithun, New Cornish seithan, Middle Breton suzyn, New Breton sizun, or suzun): sül, lün, morth, merchir, iou, guener, sadorn or dies solis, lunae, Martis, Mercurii, Jovis, Veneris, Saturni.
Already after the baptism of the Irish in the V century AD, Sunday was called dies dominica (the Day of the Lord), Wednesday the first fasts, Friday the last fasts, Thursday the day between fasts, etc.
As an example, we will compare the names of the days of the week in modern Celtic languages and the Germanic names of the Anglo Saxons and the English:
Middle Cambrian Breton New Irish Anglo — Saxon English 1st — dyw sul diçcul domnaigh sunnandaeg sunday 2nd — dyw llun dillun luan monandaeg monday 3rd — dyw mawrth demeurz mairt tiwesdaeg tuesday 4th — dyw merchyr demercher cetaoin wodnesdaeg wednesday 5 y — dyw ieu diziou dardoin thunresdaeg thursday 6th — dyw gwener derguener haoin, oindidin frigedaeg friday 7th dyw sadwrn desadorn salhuirn, satharn saeternesdaeg saturday
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Among the ancient Germans, who moved to settlement and faced the influence of Roman culture, the awareness of the length of the year was very vague.
According to many Gothic, Old Saxon and other sources, German farmers and pastoralists took the beginning of winter or late autumn as the starting point of time.
They, like other peoples of the northern latitudes, opposed winter to summer and divided the year into two halves.
The Anglo Saxon chronicler Bede the Venerable (VIII century) began counting the year from late autumn (vinterfylle) and talked about half years.
We find the same division in Snorri Sturluson (XIII century — haustmánuðr).
The line of separation of the two halves was considered the equinox or, more precisely, "equinoxes" (Old High German ebennath, Anglo Saxon efenniht, Old Frisian evennath, Old Norse jafndœgr).
At this time, the Germans made great sacrifices.
Subsequently, according to the Roman historian Tacitus (I century AD), they switched to a three part division of the year.
The year was divided into spring, summer and winter.
Autumn as a season appeared among the Germans only with the development of horticulture and viticulture.
According to the four — part division of the year, four great events were celebrated according to the civil calendar: the rebirth of the Sun god (mid winter jul), the rebirth of joy in early summer in honor of the god Fro (Fro, Freyr) and in mid summer in honor of the god Baldur (Baldur), the arrival of spring in honor of the gods Tiu and Tunar (Ziu, Thunar) and the harvest of fruits in autumn.
The introduction of the four seasons was influenced by the Julian calendar, from which the Germans learned the concepts of "equinox" and "solstice".
After the Christianization of the Germans, the church combined the day of John the Baptist (June 24) with the days of the gods Fro and Baldur, the Archangel Michael (September 29) with the day of fruit gathering.
Throughout the Middle Ages, as an echo of the ancient pagan ritual of burning sacrifices, bonfires burned on this day in the Moselle, the Eiffel and Sweden.
Vidukind of Corvey (X century) reported about a three day great holiday among the ancient Saxons at the end of September.
The feast of St. Martin (November 11) was combined with the day of the beginning of winter, and Christmas - with the middle of winter.
The beginning of spring fell on Easter on St. George's Day (April 23 or 24) or May 1, which partly went back to pagan customs.
The ancient German priests could determine the position of the Sun to determine the time of the main holidays.
As an example, we can cite groups of circles laid out of stones, found in the places of settlement of the ancient Germans.
The number of stones found often corresponded to certain calendar dates.
The Neolithic structure near Eubury (Britain) consists of the main complex and two small circles about 2 km away from it, connected by two curved and gradually narrowing "streets".
The main structure consisted of powerful stone blocks facing the earthen rampart.
The remains of 99 plates with a height and width of 3-4 m and a thickness of about 1.5 m have been preserved.
Inside this outer circle there were two more circles, of which the inner one consisted of 12 similar plates, the outer double one in the south — of 30, and in the north — of 29.
Since the average duration of the Synodic month is 29.5 days, it can be assumed that the plates determined the number of days of the empty and full months.
The total number of months in the solar year is marked by an inner circle of 12 plates, 99 plates correspond to the sum of the months, after which the beginning of the month and the year again coincide.
So, we have an 8 year cycle with 3 months of 30 days:
49 months to 29 days = 1421 days;
50 months of 30 days = 1500 days.
Total: 99 months = 2921 days.
But at the same time, 8 years of 365 and 1/4 days count 2922 days.
The difference between the lunar and solar years is 1 day, and it is possible that a separate stone was placed in front of the southern double circle to align this discrepancy.
In this case, we can assume the influence of the Greek and Roman numerals.
A similar numerical ratio is found in Stonehenge and other stone circular structures.
We also find confirmation of the lunar and solar year in the folk beliefs of the ancient Germans, especially when highlighting the number "13", which in their art was of a sacredness (for example, the image of the Sun or a star with 13 rays, the division of circular figures into 13 segments, etc.).
The lunar solar year was based on the definition of a full moon and a new moon.
Days inside a natural, i.e. natural, year ger Manz was determined by the change of the moon, and the Germanic language clearly the exact designation of the concepts of "Lou" and "Month" (for example, Gothic mena moon and menoþs — "IU es"; mânôd old high German, Anglo Saxon mon[a]þ, drev escandinava mánaðr, drevnerusskoe monath, middle high German mânôt, mônôt, Dutch maand, manad Swedish, Danish maaned, English, month, etc.).
The length of the month the Germans had expected from one new moon to another, and scored so not by days but by nights.
They used an interconnected lunar solar year, in which the difference between the lunar year of 354 days (12 months of 29.5 days) and the solar year of 365 days was filled up by periodic addition after a 12 year cycle of one year.
A month of 30 days was considered as "unlucky" and symbolically marked with the number "13".
Equating the lunar year to the solar year with the inclusion of a 30 day month occurred according to need.
The division of the year into three parts is also found in some Runic calendars (rîmstock) — a folk form of the Julian calendar that spread in Northern Europe since the XIII century.
The runic ka lendar consisted of sticks or washers made of wood, bone or metal with signs applied to them.
The beginning of the year was equated with the beginning of the Old Norse summer half year (April 14) or the beginning of winter (October 14).
Among the Alemans and Franks, the beginning of the year was determined from the month of March.
However, already in the VIII century, there was a postponement of the beginning of the year to the month of May, associated not with a change in the calendar system as a whole, but with the policy of the Frankish kings.
During the Romanization of the Germanic tribes, the numbering of the New Year from Christmas was spread; this custom was associated with the transfer of om of the Germans from the lunar solar year to the solar one and with the influence on the local calendars of the Julian calendar.
The Church initially characterized this introduction as an antiquus error and threatened to punish those who adhered to it.
However, this custom was already established in the second half of the VI century; the beginning of the year is postponed to January 1.
In Germany, in Munster, this date was officially introduced in 1313, in Frankfurt am Main — in 1338, in Switzerland (with the exception of the canton of Waadt) and in some French provinces — in the XI century, in Mainz only in the XV century, in England during the Norman conquest, until 1155, and then adopted again in 1751, in Norway it was introduced in the second half of the XV century, in Denmark and Sweden in 1559, in the Netherlands in 1575, in Scotland in 1600
A special number was observed among the Germans of Scandinavia and Northern Europe.
The Old German northern year (Gothic jer/ger, Anglo Saxon gear, Old Frisian jer, Old Saxon gar/ger, Old German jar, Icelandic ár, Swedish år, Danish aar) was divided into two so — called half years misseri, i.e. summer (sumar) and winter (vetr).
The year began with winter, and the account was kept by winter.
Night preceded the day, summer was divided into the beginning (sumarmál), the middle (miðsumar, mittsumar), and then the end followed; winter — into the beginning (vetrnætr), the middle (miðvetr, miðr vetr), and then the end followed.
Spring (var) and autumn (haust) were also taken into account, but as transitional periods.
The year consisted of 12 months (mánaðr).
According to the Old Icelandic calendar, for example, the year began on April 14:
1st — sáðtíð (gaukmánaðr)
2nd — eggtíð (stekktíð)
3rd — selmánaðr (solmánaðr)
4th — heyannir (miðsumar)
5th — kornskurðarmánaðr
6th — haustmánaðr
7th — gormánaðr
8th — fremánaðr (ölir)
9th — hrútmánaðr (mörsugr)
10th -ororri
11th — gói
12th — einmánaðr
The meaning ofororri, gói, einmánaðr is unclear.
1st — "the cuckoo month" (April), 2nd — "the time of sowing and laying eggs", 3rd — "the time of pasture pasture", 4th — "the time of haymaking and harvesting", 5th and 6th the autumn months, 7th - "the time of battles", 8th - "the time of howling storms" and 9th - "the time of the constellation of Aries" (December).
All the names were determined by natural phenomena and economic needs.
Each month consisted of 30 days.
By the 3rd summer month, 4 more days were added as "extended nights" (aukanætr).
So, the year consisted of 364 days, or 52 seven day weeks: winter - of 25 weeks and 5 days; summer - of 26 weeks and 2 days.
Winter began directly from Saturday, summer from Thursday.
Between 950 and 970, a calendar was introduced in Island that combined the former with the Julian calendar.
It spanned 7 years.
The year consisted of 364 days, but an entire week was added to each 7th year at the end of summer as an" increase in summer " (sumarauki).
If two leap years of the Julian calendar were given in this 7 year period, then a week was added to the 6th year, and the 1st winter day was shifted by 10 days (October 16), and the 1st summer day — by 9 days (April 15).
In Norway, summer began on April 14, winter on October 14.
The difference between the 28 year old Old Icelandic calendar and the 28 year old Julian calendar was 28 + ¼ of 28 = 35 days, i.e. five times seven days.
Every fourth Julian year had 366 days, so the difference between the two calendars, despite the fact that the Old Icelandic included a seven day week, was preserved in 7 days, for example:
after 1 year = 365 − 364 = 1 day
after 2 years = 730-728 = 2 days
after 3 years = 1095-1092 = 3 days
after 4 years = 1466-1461 = 5 days
after 5 years = 1826-1820 = 6 days
after 6 years = 2191-2191 = 0, etc.
If we continue further, then after 11 years 4017-4011 = 6 days, after 12 years
