This course work is largely devoted to the history of the emergence and evolution of the monetary system of Russia, but speaking of the above, it is impossible not to mention such a historically important moment as the emergence of the equivalent of labor, in other words, money in Egypt, since it was there that "the most common and ancient form of using gold and silver in the form of monetary values was the casting of rings, which was especially convenient when dividing them into parts" (Svyatlovsky V. V. Origin of money and banknotes), and China, because the first paper money, like paper itself, was made in this country.
The relevance of this topic is reflected in the following.
Throughout the development of human society,money, from the moment of its appearance, plays a huge role.
At first glance, it may seem that there are no difficulties in the modern understanding of money by people.
Indeed, a huge number of people in the world pay daily for the goods or services they have purchased.
But not everyone can imagine the value that money has.
But money is necessary for the functioning of any economy in the modern world.
Money allows us to postpone the use of the results of our work or commercial operations in time.
But the study of money is of particular importance for understanding the functioning of the market system of the economy.
Since, if a country is moving towards a market economy of the modern type, where the regulatory economic role of the state is quite large, then money, monetary circulation are the main tool in the mechanism of state regulation, using which the state can contribute to economic and social progress.
In the event that the state does not own this mechanism, it is possible to destroy the entire economy of the country.
And already on these two grounds, we can talk about the indisputable importance of studying money.
In this paper, I have made an attempt to consider in as much detail as possible the main issues concerning the emergence of money, both metal and paper, but, of course, I have tried to pay most attention to the development of the monetary system of Russia, from a historical point of view.
In writing this course work, I used the works of both domestic and foreign authors, as well as I did not ignore the information on these pages.
Of course, there is a large amount of literature and other scientific works on this topic, but as Z. P. Evzlin wrote at the beginning of the twentieth century:"The literature on the monetary question is immense and, nevertheless, the monetary problem cannot yet be considered solved, and the doctrine of money in economic science is firmly established."
A century later, the situation has not changed.
When presenting my course work, I mainly used the books of the following authors: A. G. Voitov, P. A. Khromov, Friedrich A. Hayek, since their works collected the greatest amount of information on the question I am considering.
Having studied this and other literature in detail, I will try to reveal the topic I have chosen as much as possible.
<span Times New Roman",«serif»; mso fareast font family:«Times New Roman»;mso font kerning:16.0pt;mso ansi language: RU;mso fareast language:RU;mso bidi language:AR SA"> <span Times New Roman",«serif»">Originedeneg
"The history of money, for the most part, is the history of inflation organized by the government." (Friedrich. Hayek)
In the initial period of the existence of human society, natural economy prevailed.
The manufactured products were intended for their own consumption.
Gradually, people specialized in the manufacture of certain types of products.
The surplus began to be used for exchange for other products needed by the given manufacturer.
Economic entities began to produce products not only for their own consumption, but also for exchange for other goods or for realisation.
For the direct exchange of goods for goods, the seller needs exactly the product that is offered by the other party.
Therefore, the exchange of goods can occur if the necessary goods are available from both parties entering into the transaction.
This condition significantly restricts the possibilities of commodity exchange.
It should be taken into account that the exchange must comply with the requirement of equivalence of the value of the goods involved in the exchange, which also restricts the exchange.
Due to the development of market relations, it was necessary to establish a general equivalent that does not create difficulties in its circulation.
If such a product was cattle, then it should be fed, protected from predators, distilled, etc .
If this function was performed by grain, furs, then they could be spoiled by moths, weevils, etc .
And if such a function was performed by low value goods, then great efforts were required to carry them.
Thus, thanks to "natural selection", the role of money first passed to ferrous metals(in Babylon, the equivalent was originally iron), then to non ferrous metals (the money of ancient Rome was copper), and later to noble metals.
At the same time, silver and gold for a long time performed this function simultaneously, which was called"bimetallism", that is, when two metals performed the functions of money.
<span Times New Roman",«serif»; text transform:uppercase">The emergence of metal money
In general, the uniformity,divisibility, preservation, transportability, high value of noble metals led to the fact that they began to perform the function of a universal equivalent and, thereby, turned into money.
Gold and silver were used as money in Egypt and Babylon for 3-4 thousand years BC, and this "money" existed in the form of plates, when purchasing goods from which small pieces were cut off.
In Egypt, several millennia later (12 centuries BC), money had the form of gold rings, the weight of which was indicated by the stamp.
It is possible that initially it was just jewelry made of precious metals - on fingers, hands, feet, necks, which were sometimes used as a means of payment.
The word "coin" owes its appearance to the ancient Romans, who used the Temple of the goddess Junomoneta as a workshop for minting coins.
After some time, the place where the coins were made was called "coin".
The English variant of this word is "mint", the French is "monet"; the English word "many" – money, not to mention the Russian version, came from this word...
The coins themselves first appeared in Lydia and ancient Greece in the VIII VI century BC.
Appearing in developed states, coins quickly spread to neighboring barbarian tribes, then further and further.
In Ancient Russia, Roman Greek gold coins were in circulation, but I will tell you more about this in Chapter 2.2.1, where I describe the emergence of metal money in Russia.
In order to clearly imagine the picture of the distribution of coins, let's consider their origin in the following two countries: Greece and Rome.
Greece.
Already in the VII VI centuries BC, most of the cities of Greece minted coins.
The monetary units were based on the weight units common to almost all Greeks and their names: talent, mina, stater, drachma, obol.
Talent and mine played the role of weight units, and the means of circulation (coins) were stater, drachma, obol and multiples of coins no higher than 10 drachmas.
Two types of Greek coin systems should be distinguished: stater — based systems, for which gold was the main metal, and "silver" coin systems based on the drachma.
The first system refers to the Milesian (after the name of the city of Miletus) VII V centuries BC, Phocian (Phocaeus) VII IV centuries BC and Persian (Asia Minor) VI IV centuries BC (after they were replaced by coins of Alexander the Great).
The second type of coin systems should include: the Aeginian, Ephbean (Attica and Athens), Corinthian systems, common before the IV century BC.
The above mentioned coin systems were the main ones in Greece and the Hellenic countries.
In addition to them, there were a number of other systems: Phoenician, Abder, Khois, Rhodes, etc.
In addition to gold and silver coins, copper coins hulk and mite were minted in ancient Greece.
The Roman Empire.
The first Roman coins, which looked like large cast circles of copper and bronze, were made around 338 BC on the basis of the weight trading system adopted in Rome and Middle Italy.
It weighed a full Roman pound 272.88 grams(English pound 453.59 grams) and was called acc.
After the beginning of coinage in 269 BC, the acc "lost weight" to 54.59 g.
Since then, all Roman mining was based on a single basis — a solid, weighing 4.55 g, which became the main accounting unit of the state.
<span Times New Roman",«serif»; mso fareast font family:«Times New Roman»;text transform:uppercase;mso ansi language: RU;mso fareast language:RU;mso bidi language:AR SA"> <span Times New Roman",«serif»; text transform:uppercase">The emergence of paper money
One of the most important moments in the history of the development of money is the emergence of paper money, since their appearance is nothing but the beginning of demonetization<span Times New Roman", "serif"; mso fareast font family: "Times New Roman"; mso ansi language:RU;mso fareast language: RU;mso bidi language:AR SA">[1].
Paper banknotes are divided into two groups – these are issued by the treasury (they are called treasury bills or state owned) and banks (bank notes or banknotes).Treasury notes are usually called simply paper money, in contrast to banknotes, which by their nature are credit money.
Historically, paper money appeared before credit money.
Banknotes appear with the development of credit relations.
Paper money(state money) is a sign of full fledged money.
Since money plays a fleeting role in the exchange of goods, gold becomes necessary only as an equivalent of the price of the goods.
And due to the fact that the money itself is not the embodiment of wealth, it is not so important for the seller how this"embodiment" of money relates to gold, and it is more important for him that this money is used by public recognition.
The transition from metal money to paper money is mostly explained by their ease of circulation, but for this transition, two conditions are required: relatively developed commodity money relations and the presence of trust in money made of non precious metals.
The unlimited issue of paper money, unlike gold or silver coins, which are money in themselves,and not monetary signs, leads to their depreciation.
Therefore, the issue should be limited to the amount of defective money needed for circulation in a given period, in other words,the amount of gold reserves that they replace in circulation.
Issue<span Times New Roman", "serif"; mso fareast font family: "Times New Roman"; mso ansi language:RU;mso fareast language: RU;mso bidi language:AR SA " >[2]paper money is not determined by the need for commodity circulation, but by the state budget deficit.
But no matter how much paper money the state has issued, they will only represent the amount of full fledged money that they replace in circulation.
This is the essence of inflation, that is, the reduction of the purchasing power of paper money.
In addition to the money issued by the state, which were described above, there is also money issued by banks, the so called credit money.
They are divided into three groups: a bill,a banknote and a check.
Of these, a bill of exchange appears first of all (in the XII century) and is initially used as a means of settlement between merchants, the other two are created later by banks as credit instruments.
I will start describing credit money from the "oldest" type, which is a bill of exchange.
A bill of exchange is a written abstract<span Times New Roman", "serif"; mso fareast font family: "Times New Roman"; mso ansi language:RU;mso fareast language:EN; mso bidi language: AR SA ">[3] and indisputable<span Times New Roman", "serif"; mso fareast font family: "Times New Roman"; mso ansi language:RU;mso fareast language: RU;mso bidi language:AR SA">[4]
the obligation of the borrower to pay a certain amount to the lender after the expiration of the specified period.
Promissory notes are simple and transferable.
A promissory note is a written obligation issued by the debtor to the creditor for payment after the expiration of the term.
A bill of exchange is a written obligation issued by the debtor to the creditor about payment after the expiration of the term to the creditor or to whom he will tell.
The lender can use the promissory note as follows:
1. get the money at the end of the payment period;
2.
to take into account the promissory note in the bank, while receiving its sum minus the accounting interest;
3.
use it as a means of payment for the purchase of goods, provided that the supplier agrees to accept the bill as a payment.
So, thanks to its abstractness and indisputability, the bill acquires a third property — reversibility.
This contributes to the replacement of metal money in circulation with tokens in two ways:
1.
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Before the due date, the promissory notes can be used as payment and purchasing means;
2. Part of the promissory notes is mutually repaid, thus eliminating the need for money.
Having appeared later, the banknote takes over the role of a bill of exchange, but it is a bill of issue bank.
A banknote differs from a bill of exchange, since it is not issued only for a specific transaction, and unlike a bill of exchange, a banknote is an indefinite obligation of the bank.
And finally, the receipt.
A check is a written order from the owner of a current account in a bank to pay the specified amount to a certain person, or to whom the person orders, or to the bearer of the check.
It is used both in the domestic and foreign markets.
Unlike a promissory note, it is an indefinite obligation.
In order for the receipt to have the force of a legal debt obligation, it must have:
1. an indication of who is entitled to receive these funds;
2.
the amount of the payment in figures and in words;
3. name and location of the bank;
4.
the signature of the check giver.
Now, having told a little about the paper money itself, I believe that it is necessary to proceed to the description of the history of their origin.
It is necessary to start the description with China.
Paper money<span Times New Roman", "serif"; mso fareast font family: "Times New Roman"; mso ansi language:RU;mso fareast language: RU;mso bidi language:AR SA " >[5]appeared in China in the VIII century AD, but paper was produced there for the first time much earlier approximately in
IV century of our era.
The earliest type of paper money in China was a special receipt, issued either as a sub value, deposited in special shops, or as evidence of taxes paid, stored in accounts in the provincial centers, or in the capital.
Paper money made a great impression on travelers who visited China in the VII VIII centuries.
Marco Polo wrote that the issue of paper money is a new way to achieve the goal that alchemists have been striving for for so long<span Times New Roman", "serif"; mso fareast font family: "Times New Roman"; mso ansi language:RU;mso fareast language: RU;mso bidi language:AR SA">[6].
In the XIII century, the government of Genghis Khan freely exchanged paper banknotes for gold, so counterfeiting paper money brought large incomes and was considered a fearless crime.
By 1500, the Chinese government was forced to stop issuing paper money due to difficulties associated with excessive issuance and inflation, but private banks that already existed in China at that time continued to issue paper money, which made it impossible to stop issuing it.
<span Arial",«sans serif»;mso fareast font family: «Times New Roman»;mso font kerning:16.0pt;mso ansi language:RU;mso fareast language: RU;mso bidi language:AR SA"> <span Times New Roman",«serif»">The emergence and evolution of the Russian monetary system<span Times New Roman", "serif"">The emergence of money in Russia
Having told About the history of the appearance of money in the world, using the examples of some states, I consider it possible to go to the history of the monetary system of Russia.
The money of any country, which is obvious, becomes some most important item, mainly a consumer item, such as cattle.
In Russia, such is the subject of consumption of cattle and was, which is confirmed by many articles from the "Russian Truth", where there are both mentions of fines by cattle, and the word "cattle" is repeatedly used in the sense of money.
In the Chronicle of 1018, we can read that the Novgorodians, wanting to continue the struggle,"began to collect cattle from their husband for 4 kuna, and from the elders for 10 hryvnia, and the otboyar for 18 hryvnia...".
We can cite quite a few historical documents that indirectly confirm that in Russia cattle performed the role of money.
The widespread misconception that cattle in Kievan Rus performed the role of a general equivalent is refuted by the nature of the economy, " since our ancestors in the period preceding the formation of the Kievan state were already an agricultural people."
At a certain stage of economic development of Russia, the role of money was performed by furs: first, simultaneously with the cattle, and then displacing it, due to its many advantages.
Furs played an important role both internally and in foreign trade, since the country of vast forests, rich in commercial animals, had all the conditions for this.
Among the Eastern Slavs in the period before the formation of the Kiev state, the money was mainly made by marten furs.
<span Arial",«sans serif»; mso fareast font family:«Times New Roman»;mso font kerning:16.0pt;mso ansi language: RU;mso fareast language:RU;mso bidi language:AR SA"> Development and change of the monetary system in Russia
"The emergence of metal money is the most important stage in the development of commodity production in Russia.
This is one of the stages of commodity production, from which civilization begins. "
(Khromov P. A. Economic development of Russia).
Metal money circulation was widespread in Russia during the formation of feudal relations.
Furs as monetary units had already been outlived by that time, and the hryvnia became the main monetary unit<span Times New Roman", "serif"; mso fareast font family: "Times New Roman"; mso ansi language:RU;mso fareast language:RU;mso bidi language: AR SA">[7]
, a weight unit used to measure gold and silver.
Judging by the "Russian Truth", the hryvnia and the kuna served as the main metal monetary units not only in trade, but also in the process of collecting tribute.
Another Old Russian coin was the zlatnik (spool) — the first gold coin in Russia, equal in weight to the Byzantine solid or 4.2 gr.
This Ancient Russian coin with a Slavic inscription, a portrait of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich and the family coat of arms of the Rurikovich did not play a special role in trade, but rather served as a symbol of the power of the state.
It was minted, as well as srebrenik, in the XI centuries.
Srebrenik (serebryanik) is the first silver coin of Ancient Russia.
Silver of Arab coins was used for coinage.
The coin was minted in Kiev by Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, in Novgorod by Yaroslav the Wise.
A separate group of coins is represented by the coins of Prince Oleg Mikhailov of Temutarakan, minted around 1070.
Even before the formation of the Kievan state, and then during its existence, foreign trade and wars facilitated the receipt of metal money from the countries of the East, Byzantium, and later from Western countries.
According to some data, the Slavs had gold money back in the IV V centuries.
In the monetary circulation of Ancient Russia, bullion played a more significant role than in the West, where the circulation of bullion was opposed by the feudal lords,who had the right to mint coins and considered every ingot as a material for coinage.
In Russia, the authorities, on the contrary, promoted the circulation of bullion, which is anointed with hryvnia.
As in other countries, the names of the monetary units of the ukrainians coincided with the weight ones, the hryvnia was both a monetary and a weight unit.
With the growth of social labor, the role of money is increasingly transferred to noble metals.
This became possible when handicraft as a form of activity was separated from agriculture.
Gold, silver, bronze hryvnia used by women as jewelry in the form of a hoop, worn around the neck (on the back of the neck, hence the name) later became the main monetary unit of Russia.
The question of the weight of the hryvnia is usually associated with the question of its origin.
If you see in it the "Russian pound", or half of it, then the hryvnia goes back to the ancient Mesopotamian pound, borrowed by Russia and preserved by us before the introduction of the metric system.
But in the treasures they find ingots of different weights.
Some researchers have come to the conclusion that the weight of the hryvnia varies depending on which country had the greatest trade relations with this place.
The change of influence of the East, Byzantium and the West consistently influenced the canopy of the hryvnia (Arab ounce, Byzantine lira, Western mark).
The first Russian hryvnia is considered to be the Kiev hexagonal hryvnia, the weight of which ranges from 34 to 39 zlatnikov (143-164 gr.).
At first, there was no division of the hryvnia, but then the names "silver hryvnia" and"kun hryvnia" appeared in ancient literature.
The first mention of the hryvnia kun is found in the Vipatiev chronicle in 1287.
The question of what is the hryvnia kun, what was its difference from the hryvnia of silver, is one of the controversial issues of the history of money in Russia.
The hryvnia kun was still a coin, since it remained the main monetary unit in the trading capital of Ancient Russia Mr. Velikomnovgorod until the XV century.
Then they began to mint their own coin here, and until then there were a lot of foreign coins — Hansa.
It was also probably in Pskov,Smolensk, Polotsk and Vitebsk.
A fairly rapid fall in the hryvnia exchange rate is explained by its intense damage in the West, by the way, which forced Novgorodians to start minting their own coin.
The value of the issued money, i.e. the weight of pure silver in them, was in proportion to Western European coins.
The minting of the coins of Kievan Rus began earlier than in many European countries.
There are irrefutable proofs of the minting of coins in the X XI centuries in Russia — the silver coin of Vladimir Monomakh (1078-1125), the Kiev hryvnia (weighing 140-160g), etc.
Coins in ancient Russia were much larger than in Western Europe at that time.
The enlarged coin weighing up to 3 grams and above was minted hundreds of years earlier than in Europe.
The coin of the Kiev period, especially gold, is technically better executed than the Western European medieval coin.
Moreover, it is necessary to note that the minting of gold began even earlier than in France.
However, the coin was minted in limited quantities and the share of hryvnia and foreign coins in circulation was greater.
Own mass coin in Russia appeared later.
And the Russians called the foreign coins in their own way: "nogata", "rezana", "shelyag", "veveritsa", etc.
The period from the XII to the XIV century went down in the history of Russia as "moneyless".
Tatar coins appear in the north east of Russia.
In the XIII century, after the Russian lands fell under the Mongol yoke, the development of the coin took place in two ways.
Since the XIV century,the Prague penny, denarius, kvartnik, polugrosh, shelyag and other Western coins have appeared in the southwestern lands.
At the same time, the coinage of Russian coins began in the north east of Russia.
Money appeared as a coin at the end of the XIV century in Moscow, then in other Russian principalities.
From the hryvnia silver 204g, 200 coins were minted at 1.02 gr, which make up the Moscow counting ruble.
In addition to money, half — money (half pieces) were minted, in Novgorod and Pskov a quarter, i.e. 1/4 money.
The unification of the Russian coin was carried out by Elena Glinskaya,the regent under the young Ivan IV in 1534.
Since that time, one national silver coin was minted,twice as heavy as money — Novgorodka, which later received the name kopek from the image of the rider of Skopje on it; Moscow money or Moskovka, or simply money, which was also anointed "saber" or "sword" according to the garden with a saber depicted on it; polushka (half money), equal to half of the money and quarters of the city.
300 novgorodok weighing 0.68 gr, or 600deneg, weighing 0.34 gr, were minted from the hryvnia of silver.
Thus, since 1534, 100 Novgorodok was equal to 1 ruble.
The history of the ruble is also interesting.
This name was given to the Novgorod hryvnia (a long silver stick weighing 204 g).
In the first issues, zlatniki and srebreniki mostly repeat the type of Byzantine coins (on one side — the image of the prince, n
