Astronomy
[edit / edit wiki text] Material from Wikipedia the free encyclopedia
This is the stable version, released on November 23, 2015.
The state is unpatrolled
Go to: navigation, Search
Crab Nebula
Astronomy is the science of the universe that studies the location, movement, structure, origin and development of celestial bodies and the systems formed by them[1].
In particular, astronomy studies the Sun and other stars, planets of the Solar system and their satellites, exoplanets, asteroids, comets, meteorites, interplanetary matter, interstellar matter, pulsars, black holes, nebulae, galaxies and their clusters, quasars and much more[1].
Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences.
Prehistoric cultures and the most ancient civilizations left behind numerous astronomical artifacts that testify to their knowledge of the laws of the movement of celestial bodies.
As examples, we can cite pre dynastic ancient Egyptian monuments (English)Russian.
and Stonehenge.
The first civilizations of the Babylonians, Greeks,Chinese, Indians and Maya already carried out methodical observations of the night sky.
But only the invention of the telescope allowed astronomy to develop into a modern science.
Historically, astronomy has included astrometry, star navigation, observational astronomy, calendar creation, and even astrology.
Nowadays, professional astronomy is often considered as a synonym for astrophysics.
In the XX century, astronomy was divided into two main branches: observational and theoretical.
Observational astronomy is the acquisition of observational data about celestial bodies, which are then analyzed.
Theoretical astronomy is focused on the development of computer, mathematical or analytical models for describing astronomical objects and phenomena.
These two branches complement each other: theoretical astronomy seeks explanations for the results of observations, and observational astronomy provides material for theoretical conclusions and hypotheses and the possibility of testing them.
The year 2009 was declared by the UN as the International Year of Astronomy (IYA2009).
The main emphasis is on increasing public interest in astronomy and its understanding.
This is one of the few sciences where non professionals can still play an active role.
Amateur astronomy has contributed to a number of important astronomical discoveries.
Content
[remove]
1 Etymology 2 Structure of astronomy as a scientific discipline 2.1 Stellar astronomy
3 Subjects of Astronomy 4 Tasks of Astronomy 5 History of Astronomy 6 Astronomical Observations 6.1 Optical Astronomy 6.2 Infrared Astronomy 6.3 Ultraviolet Astronomy 6.4 Radio Astronomy 6.5 X ray astronomy 6.6 Gamma astronomy 6.7 Astronomy not related to electromagnetic radiation 6.8 Astrometry and Celestial mechanics 6.9 Extra atmospheric astronomy
7 Theoretical Astronomy 8 Amateur Astronomy 9 See also 10 Codes in Knowledge Classification Systems 11 Notes 12 Literature 13 References
Etymology[edit / edit wiki text]
The term "astronomy" (al Greek. ἀστρονομία) is formed from the ancient Greek: ἀστήρ, ἄστρον (Aster, Astron), "star" and νόμος (NOMOS), "usage, the establishment, the law" 1].
The structure of astronomy as a scientific discipline[edit / edit wiki text]
Lunar astronomy: The large crater in the image is Daedalus, photographed by the crew of Apollo 11 during its orbit around the Moon in 1969.
The crater is located near the center of the invisible side of the Moon, its diameter is about 93 km
Extragalactic astronomy: gravitational lensing.
Several blue loop shaped objects are visible, which are multiple images of a single galaxy, multiplied due to the effect of a gravitational lens from a cluster of yellow galaxies near the center of the photo.
The lens is created by the gravitational field of the cluster, which bends the light rays, which leads to an increase and distortion of the image of a more distant object
Modern astronomy is divided into a number of sections that are closely related to each other, so the division of astronomy is to some extent conditional.
The main sections of astronomy are: Astrometry studies the visible positions and movements of the luminaries.
Previously, the role of astrometry also consisted in the highly accurate determination of geographical coordinates and time by studying the movement of celestial bodies (now other methods are used for this).
Modern astrometry consists of: fundamental astrometry, the tasks of which are to determine the coordinates of celestial bodies from observations, compiling catalogs of stellar positions and determining the numerical values of astronomical parameters quantities that allow taking into account the regular changes in the coordinates of the luminaries; spherical astronomy, which develops mathematical methods for determining the apparent positions and movements of celestial bodies using various coordinate systems, as well as the theory of regular changes in the coordinates of the luminaries over time;
Theoretical astronomy provides methods for determining the orbits of celestial bodies by their visible positions and methods for calculating the ephemerides (visible positions) of celestial bodies by known elements of their orbits (the inverse problem).
Celestial mechanics studies the laws of motion of celestial bodies under the influence of the forces of universal gravitation, determines the masses and shape of celestial bodies and the stability of their systems.
These three sections mainly solve the first problem of astronomy (the study of the motion of celestial bodies) and they are often called classical astronomy.
Astrophysics studies the structure, physical properties and chemical composition of celestial objects.
It is divided into: a) practical (observational) astrophysics, in which practical methods of astrophysical research and appropriate tools and devices are developed and applied; b) theoretical astrophysics, in which, on the basis of the laws of physics, explanations of observed physical phenomena are given.
A number of sections of astrophysics are distinguished by specific research methods.
Stellar astronomy studies the laws of spatial distribution and motion of stars, stellar systems and interstellar matter, taking into account their physical features.
Cosmochemistry studies the chemical composition of cosmic bodies, the laws of the distribution and distribution of chemical elements in the Universe, the processes of combination and migration of atoms during the formation of cosmic matter.
Sometimes nuclear cosmochemistry is distinguished, which studies the processes of radioactive decay and the isotopic composition of cosmic bodies.
Nucleogenesis is not considered in the framework of cosmochemistry.
In these two sections, the second problem of astronomy (the structure of celestial bodies) is mainly solved.
Cosmogony deals with the origin and evolution of celestial bodies, including our Earth.
Cosmology studies the general laws of the structure and development of the Universe.
Based on all the knowledge gained about celestial bodies, the last two sections of astronomy solve its third problem (the origin and evolution of celestial bodies).
The course of general astronomy contains a systematic presentation of information about the main methods and the main results obtained by various sections of astronomy.
One of the new directions, formed only in the second half of the XX century, is archeoastronomy, which studies the astronomical knowledge of ancient people and helps to date ancient structures based on the phenomenon of precession of the Earth.
Stellar astronomy[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Star
The planetary nebula of Ant Mz3.
The gas ejection from the dying central star is symmetrical, unlike the chaotic ejections of ordinary explosions
The study of stars and stellar evolution is fundamental to our understanding of the universe.
Astronomers study stars with the help of both observations and theoretical models, and now with the help of computer numerical modeling.
The formation of stars occurs in gas dust nebulae.
Sufficiently dense areas of nebulae can be compressed by the force of gravity, warming up due to the potential energy released at the same time.
When the temperature becomes sufficiently high, thermonuclear reactions begin in the core of the protostar and it becomes a star[2].
Almost all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium are formed in stars.
Subjects of astronomy[edit / edit wiki text]
Astrometry Constellations Celestial sphere Celestial coordinate systems Time
Celestial Mechanics Astrophysics Stellar evolution Neutron Stars and Black Holes Astrophysical Hydrodynamics
Galaxies The Milky Way The structure of galaxies The evolution of galaxies Active galactic nuclei
Cosmology Redshift Relic radiation Big Bang Theory Dark matter Dark Energy
History of Astronomy Astronomers Amateur Astronomy Astronomical Instruments Astronomical Observatories Astronomical Symbols Space exploration Planetology Cosmonautics
Tasks of astronomy[edit / edit wiki text]
Radio telescopes are one of the many different instruments used by astronomers
The main tasks of astronomy are[1]:
The study of the visible, and then the actual positions and movements of celestial bodies in space, determining their size and shape.
The study of the structure of celestial bodies, the study of the chemical composition and physical properties (density, temperature, etc.) of the substance in them.
Solving the problems of the origin and development of individual celestial bodies and the systems formed by them.
The study of the most general properties of the Universe, the construction of the theory of the observable part of the Universe — Metagalaxy.
The solution of these problems requires the creation of effective research methods - both theoretical and practical.
The first problem is solved by long term observations, which began in ancient times, as well as on the basis of the laws of mechanics, known for about 300 years.
Therefore, in this field of astronomy, we have the richest information, especially for celestial bodies relatively close to the Earth: the Moon, the Sun, planets, asteroids, etc.
The solution of the second problem became possible due to the advent of spectral analysis and photography.
The study of the physical properties of celestial bodies began in the second half of the XIX century, and the main problems — only in recent years.
The third task requires the accumulation of the observed material.
At present, such data is still insufficient to accurately describe the process of the origin and development of celestial bodies and their systems.
Therefore, knowledge in this field is limited only by general considerations and a number of more or less plausible hypotheses.
The fourth task is the most ambitious and the most difficult.
Practice shows that existing physical theories are no longer sufficient to solve it.
It is necessary to create a more general physical theory that can describe the state of matter and physical processes at limiting values of density, temperature, and pressure.
To solve this problem, observational data are required in regions of the universe located at distances of several billion light years.
Modern technical capabilities do not allow us to study these areas in detail.
Nevertheless, this task is now the most urgent and is being successfully solved by astronomers of a number of countries, including Russia.
History of astronomy[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: History of Astronomy
Since there have been people on Earth, they have always been interested in what they saw in the sky.
Even in ancient times, they noticed the relationship between the movement of the heavenly bodies in the firmament and periodic changes in the weather.
Astronomy was then thoroughly mixed with astrology.
The final separation of scientific astronomy occurred in the Renaissance and took a long time.
Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences that arose from the practical needs of mankind.
According to the location of the stars and constellations, primitive farmers determined the onset of the seasons.
Nomadic tribes were guided by the Sun and stars.
The need for chronology led to the creation of a calendar.
There is evidence that even prehistoric people knew about the main phenomena associated with the sunrise and sunset of the Sun, Moon and some stars.
The periodic recurrence of eclipses of the Sun and Moon has been known for a very long time.
Among the oldest written sources, there are descriptions of astronomical phenomena, as well as primitive calculation schemes for predicting the time of sunrise and sunset of bright celestial bodies, and methods of counting time and maintaining a calendar.
Astronomy was successfully developed in ancient Babylon, Egypt, China and India.
In Chinese Chronicles describe the solar Eclipse, which took place in the 3 rd Millennium BC.
Theories, which are developed on the basis of arithmetic and geometry to explain and predict the movement of the Sun, moon and bright planets, were created in the Mediterranean countries in the last centuries of the pre Christian era, and with a simple but effective instrument, served a practical purpose until the Renaissance.
Astronomy reached a particularly great development in ancient Greece.
Pythagoras first came to the conclusion that the Earth has a spherical shape, and Aristarchus of Samos suggested that the Earth revolves around the Sun.
Hipparchus compiled one of the first star catalogues in the II century BC.
The work of Ptolemy "Almagest", written in the II century AD, describes the geocentric system of the world, which was generally accepted for almost one and a half thousand years.
In the Middle Ages, astronomy achieved significant development in the countries of the East.
In the XV century.
Ulugbek built an observatory near Samarkand with instruments that were accurate at that time.
The first catalog of stars after Hipparchus was compiled here.
The development of astronomy in Europe began in the XVI century.
New demands were put forward in connection with the development of trade and navigation and the birth of industry, contributed to the liberation of science from the influence of religion and led to a number of major discoveries.
The birth of modern astronomy associated with the rejection of the geocentric system of Ptolemy (II century) and replace it with the heliocentric system of Nicolaus Copernicus (mid XVI century), with early studies celestial bodies through telescope (Galileo beginning of the XVII century) and the discovery of the law of gravity (Isaac Newton, the end of the XVII century).
XVIII—XIX century was for astronomy a period of accumulation of information and knowledge about the Solar system, our Galaxy, and the physical nature of stars, the Sun, the planets and other cosmic bodies.
The appearance of large telescopes and the implementation of systematic observations led to the discovery that the Sun is part of a huge disk — shaped system consisting of many billions of stars a galaxy.
At the beginning of the XX century, astronomers discovered that this system is one of millions of similar galaxies.
The discovery of other galaxies was the impetus for the development of extragalactic astronomy.
The study of the spectra of galaxies allowed Edwin Hubble in 1929 to identify the phenomenon of "scattering of galaxies", which later received explanations based on the general expansion of the Universe.
In the XX century, astronomy was divided into two main branches: observational and theoretical.
Observational astronomy is the acquisition of observational data about celestial bodies, which are then analyzed.
Theoretical astronomy is focused on the development of models (analytical or computer) to describe astronomical objects and phenomena.
These two branches complement each other: theoretical astronomy seeks explanations for the results of observations, and observational astronomy provides material for theoretical conclusions and hypotheses and the possibility of testing them.
The scientific and technical revolution of the XX century had an extremely great impact on the development of astronomy in general and especially astrophysics.
The creation of high resolution optical and radio telescopes, the use of rockets and artificial Earth satellites for extra atmospheric astronomical observations led to the discovery of new types of cosmic bodies: radio galaxies, quasars, pulsars, X ray sources, etc.
The basics of the theory of the evolution of stars and the cosmogony of the Solar system were developed.
The achievement of astrophysics of the XX century was relativistic cosmology the theory of the evolution of the Universe as a whole.
Astronomical observations[edit / edit wiki text]
Most of the astronomical observations are the registration and analysis of visible light and other electromagnetic radiation[3].
Astronomical observations can be divided according to the region of the electromagnetic spectrum in which the measurements are carried out.
Some parts of the spectrum can be observed from the Earth (that is, its surface), while other observations are carried out only at high altitudes or in space (in spacecraft orbiting the Earth).
Detailed information about these study groups is provided below.
Optical astronomy[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Optical Astronomy
Optical astronomy (also called visible light astronomy) is the oldest form of space exploration[4].
At first, the observations were sketched by hand.
At the end of the XIX century and most of the XX century, research was carried out using photographs.
Now images are obtained by digital detectors, in particular detectors based on charge coupled devices (CCD).
Although visible light covers a range of approximately 4000 Ǻ to 7000 Ǻ (400-700 nanometers)[4], the equipment used in this range allows us to study the near ultraviolet and infrared range.
Infrared astronomy[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Infrared astronomy
Herschel Infrared Space Telescope
Infrared astronomy concerns the registration and analysis of the infrared radiation of celestial bodies.
Although its wavelength is close to the wavelength of visible light, infrared radiation is strongly absorbed by the atmosphere, in addition, the Earth's atmosphere emits strongly in this range.
Therefore, observatories for studying infrared radiation should be located on high and dry places or in space.
The infrared spectrum is useful for studying objects that are too cold to emit visible light (for example, planets and gas dust disks around stars).
Infrared rays can pass through dust clouds that absorb visible light, which makes it possible to observe young stars in molecular clouds and galactic nuclei[5].
Some molecules emit powerful radiation in the infrared range, and this makes it possible to study the chemical composition of astronomical objects (for example, to find water in comets)[6].
Ultraviolet astronomy[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Ultraviolet Astronomy
Ultraviolet astronomy deals with wavelengths from about 100 to 3200 Ǻ (10-320 nanometers)[7].
Light at these wavelengths is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, so the study of this range is performed from the upper atmosphere or from space.
Ultraviolet astronomy is better suited for studying hot stars (classes O and B), since the main part of the radiation falls on this range.
This includes studies of blue stars in other galaxies and planetary nebulae, supernova remnants, and active galactic nuclei.
However, ultraviolet radiation is easily absorbed by interstellar dust, so it should be corrected for it in the measurement results.
Radio Astronomy[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Radio Astronomy
Ultra large array of radio telescopes (Very Large Array) in Sirocco, New Mexico, USA
Radio astronomy is the study of radiation with a wavelength greater than one millimeter (approximately)[7].
Radio astronomy differs from most other types of astronomical observations in that the studied radio waves can be considered precisely as waves, and not as individual photons.
So, it is possible to measure both the amplitude and the phase of a radio wave, but for short waves this is not so easy to do[7].
Although some radio waves are emitted by astronomical objects in the form of thermal radiation, most of the radio radiation observed from Earth is synchrotron radiation by origin, which occurs when electrons move in a magnetic field[7].
In addition, some spectral lines are formed by interstellar gas, in particular, the spectral line of neutral hydrogen with a length of 21 cm[7].
A wide variety of space objects is observed in the radio range, in particular, supernovae, interstellar gas, pulsars and active galactic nuclei[7].
X ray astronomy[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: X ray astronomy
X ray astronomy studies astronomical objects in the X ray range.
Usually objects emit X ray radiation due to:
synchrotron mechanism (relativistic electrons moving in magnetic fields) thermal radiation from thin layers of gas heated above 107 K (10 million kelvin the so called braking radiation); thermal radiation of massive gas bodies heated above 107 K (the so called blackbody radiation)[7].
Since X ray radiation is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, X ray observations are mainly performed from orbital stations, rockets or spacecraft.
Known X ray sources in space include: X ray binary stars, pulsars, supernova remnants, elliptical galaxies, clusters of galaxies, as well as active galactic nuclei[7].
Gamma astronomy[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Gamma Astronomy
Gamma astronomy is the study of the shortest wave radiation of astronomical objects.
Gamma rays can be observed directly (by satellites such as the Compton Telescope) or indirectly (by specialized telescopes called atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes).
These telescopes record flashes of visible light formed when gamma rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere due to various physical processes such as the Compton effect, as well as Cherenkov radiation[8].
Most gamma ray sources are gamma ray bursts, which emit gamma rays from just a few milliseconds to a thousand seconds.
Only 10 % of gamma radiation sources are active for a long time.
These are, in particular, pulsars, neutron stars and candidates for black holes in active galactic nuclei[7].
Astronomy not related to electromagnetic radiation[edit / edit wiki text]
Not only electromagnetic radiation is observed from the Earth, but also other types of radiation.
In neutrino astronomy, special underground objects such as SAGE, GALLEX and Kamioka II / III are used to detect neutrinos[7].
These neutrinos come mainly from the Sun, but also from supernovae.
In addition, modern observatories can register cosmic rays, since these are very high energy particles that give cascades of secondary particles when entering the Earth's atmosphere[9].
In addition, some future neutrino detectors will also be directly sensitive to particles born when cosmic rays enter the Earth's atmosphere[7].
A new direction in the variety of methods of astronomy can become gravitational wave astronomy (English)Russian, which seeks to use gravitational wave detectors to observe compact objects.
Several observatories have already been built, for example, the laser interferometer of the LIGO gravitational observatory, but gravitational waves are very difficult to detect, and they still remain elusive[10].
Planetary astronomy is engaged not only in ground based observations of celestial bodies, but also in their direct study with the help of spacecraft, including those that delivered samples of matter to Earth.
In addition, many devices collect various information in orbit or on the surface of celestial bodies, and some conduct various experiments there.
Astrometry and celestial mechanics[edit / edit wiki text]
Main articles: Astrometry, celestial mechanics
Astrometry is one of the oldest subsections of astronomy.
It is engaged in measuring the position of celestial objects.
Accurate data on the location of the Sun, Moon, planets and stars once played an extremely important role in navigation.
Careful measurements of the position of the planets led to a deep understanding of gravitational disturbances, which made it possible to calculate their past location with high accuracy and predict the future.
This branch is known as celestial mechanics.
Currently, tracking near Earth objects makes it possible to predict the approach to them, as well as possible collisions of various objects with the Earth[11].
Measurements of the parallaxes of the nearest stars are the basis for determining distances in deep space and measuring the scale of the Universe.
These measurements provided the basis for determining the properties of distant stars; the properties can be compared with neighboring stars.
Measurements of the radial velocities and proper motions of celestial bodies allow us to study the kinematics of these systems in our galaxy.
Astrometric results can be used to measure the distribution of dark matter in the galaxy[12].
In the 1990s, astrometric methods for measuring stellar oscillations were used to detect large extrasolar planets (planets in the orbits of neighboring stars) [13].
Extra atmospheric astronomy[edit / edit wiki text]
Research using space technology occupies a special place among the methods of studying celestial bodies and the space environment.
The beginning was laid by the launch of the world's first artificial Earth satellite in the USSR in 1957.
The spacecraft made it possible to conduct research in all wavelength ranges of electromagnetic radiation.
Therefore, modern astronomy is often called all wave.
Extra atmospheric observations make it possible to receive radiation in space that is absorbed or very much changed by the Earth's atmosphere: radio emissions of some wavelengths that do not reach the Earth, as well as corpuscular radiation from the Sun and other bodies.
The study of these previously inaccessible types of radiation from stars and nebulae, the interplanetary and interstellar medium has greatly enriched our knowledge of the physical processes of the Universe.
In particular, previously unknown sources of X — ray radiation were discovered X ray pulsars.
A lot of information about the nature of distant bodies and their systems has also been obtained thanks to studies carried out using spectrographs installed on various spacecraft.
Theoretical astronomy[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Theoretical Astronomy
Theoretical astronomers use a wide range of tools, which include analytical models (for example, polytropes for approximate behavior of stars) and numerical modeling.
Each of the methods has its own advantages.
The analytical model of the process, as a rule, gives a better understanding of the essence of why this (something) happens.
Numerical models can indicate the presence of phenomena and effects that probably would not have been visible otherwise[14][15].
Theorists in the field of astronomy strive to create theoretical models and find out the consequences of these simulations in research.
This allows observers to search for data that can refute the model or helps in choosing between several alternative or contradictory models.
Theorists are also experimenting in creating or modifying a model taking into account new data.
In the case of a discrepancy, the general trend is to try to achieve a correction of the result by minimal changes in the model.
In some cases, a large amount of conflicting data over time can lead to a complete rejection of the model.
Topics that theoretical astronomers study are: stellar dynamics and the evolution of galaxies, the large scale structure of the universe, the origin of cosmic rays, general relativity and physical cosmology, in particular string cosmology and astrophysics of elementary particles.
The theory of relativity is important for the study of large scale structures for which gravity plays a significant role in physical phenomena.
This is the basis of research on black holes and gravitational waves.
Some widely accepted and studied theories and models in astronomy, now included in the Lambda CDM model, are the Big Bang, the expansion of the cosmos, dark matter and fundamental physical theories.
Amateur astronomy[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Amateur Astronomy
Astronomy is one of the sciences where the contribution of amateurs can be significant[16].
The total volume of amateur observations is greater than that of professional ones, although the technical capabilities of amateurs are much smaller.
Sometimes they build their own equipment (as they did 2 centuries ago).
Finally, most scientists came from this environment.
The main objects of observations of amateur astronomers are the Moon, planets, stars, comets, meteor showers and various objects of the deep sky, namely: star clusters, galaxies and nebulae.
One of the branches of amateur astronomy, amateur astrophotography, is the photographing of sections of the night sky.
Many amateurs specialize in individual objects, types of objects or types of events[17][18].
Most amateurs work in the visible spectrum, but a small part experiments with other wavelengths.
This includes the use of infrared filters on conventional telescopes, as well as the use of radio telescopes.
The pioneer of amateur radio astronomy is Karl Yansky, who began observing the sky in the radio range in the 1930s.
Some amateur astronomers use both home telescopes and radio telescopes, which were originally built for astronomical institutions, but are now available for amateurs (as for large research institutes)[19][20].
Amateur astronomers still continue to contribute to astronomy.
This is one of the few disciplines where their contribution can be significant.
Quite often, they observe asteroid coverings of stars, and this data is used to refine the orbits of asteroids.
Sometimes amateurs find comets, and many of them regularly observe variable stars.
And advances in digital technology have allowed amateurs to make impressive progress in the field of astrophotography[21][22][23].
See also[edit / edit wiki text]
Portal "Astronomy" Astronomy in Wiktionary?
Astronomy in the Wikiuchebnik?
Astronomy in Wikitek?
Astronomy on Wikimedia Commons?
Astronomy in Vikinovosti?
Amateur astronomy Astronomy in Russia Meteoritics List of astronomers List of observatory codes International Year of Astronomy International Day of Astronomy Astrophysics Cosmology
Codes in knowledge classification systems[edit / edit wiki text]
UDC 52 State Rubricator of Scientific and Technical Information (GRNTI) (as of 2001): 41 ASTRONOMY
Notes[edit / edit wiki text]
↑ Show compactly
↑ Go to: 1 2 3 4 Kononovich and Moroz, 2004, p .
5 ↑ Marochnik L. S. Физика космоса.
— 1986.
↑ Electromagnetic Spectrum.
NASA.
Проверено 8 сентября 2006.
Архивировано из первоисточника 5 сентября 2006.
↑ Перейти к: 1 2 Moore, P. Philip's Atlas of the Universe.
— Great Britain: George Philis Limited, 1997.
— ISBN 0-540-07465-9.
↑ Staff.
Why infrared astronomy is a hot topic, ESA (11 September 2003).
Архивировано из первоисточника 30 июля 2012.
Проверено 11 августа 2008.
↑ Infrared Spectroscopy – An Overview, NASA/IPAC.
Архивировано из первоисточника 5 августа 2012.
Проверено 11 августа 2008.
↑ Перейти к: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Allen's Astrophysical Quantities / Cox, A. N..
— New York: Springer Verlag, 2000.
— P. 124.
— ISBN 0-387-98746-0.
↑ Penston, Margaret J.
The electromagnetic spectrum.
Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council (14 August 2002).
Проверено 17 августа 2006.
Архивировано из первоисточника 8 сентября 2012.
↑ Gaisser Thomas K. Cosmic Rays and Particle Physics.
— Cambridge University Press, 1990.
— P. 1–2.
— ISBN 0-521-33931-6.
↑ Tammann, G. A.; Thielemann, F. K.; Trautmann, D. Opening new windows in observing the Universe.
Europhysics News (2003).
Проверено 3 февраля 2010.
Архивировано из первоисточника 6 сентября 2012.
↑ Calvert, James B. Celestial Mechanics.
University of Denver (28 марта 2003).
Проверено 21 августа 2006.
Архивировано из первоисточника 7 сентября 2006.
↑ Hall of Precision Astrometry.
University of Virginia Department of Astronomy.
Проверено 10 августа 2006.
Архивировано из первоисточника 26 августа 2006.
↑ Wolszczan, A.; Frail, D. A. (1992).
«A planetary system around the millisecond pulsar PSR1257+12».
Nature 355 (6356): 145–147.
DOI:10.1038/355145a0.
Bibcode: 1992Natur.355..145W.
↑ Roth H.
A Slowly Contracting or Expanding Fluid Sphere and its Stability // Physical Review.
— 1932.
— Vol. 39, Is.
3. — P. 525–529.
— DOI:10.1103/PhysRev.39.525.
— Bibcode: 1932PhRv...39..525R.
↑ Eddington A.S. Internal Constitution of the Stars.
— Cambridge University Press, 1988.
— 407 p.
— (Cambridge Science Classics).
— ISBN 978-0-521-33708-3.
↑ Mims III, Forrest M. (1999).
«Amateur Science—Strong Tradition, Bright Future».
Science 284 (5411): 55–56.
DOI:10.1126/science.284.5411.55.
Bibcode: 1999Sci...284...55M.
“Astronomy has traditionally been among the most fertile fields for serious amateurs [...]”
↑ The Americal Meteor Society.
Проверено 24 августа 2006.
Архивировано из первоисточника 22 августа 2006.
↑ Lodriguss, Jerry Catching the Light: Astrophotography.
Проверено 24 августа 2006.
Архивировано из первоисточника 1 сентября 2006.
↑ Ghigo, F. Karl Jansky and the Discovery of Cosmic Radio Waves.
National Radio Astronomy Observatory (7 февраля 2006).
Проверено 24 августа 2006.
Архивировано из первоисточника 31 августа 2006.
↑ Cambridge Amateur Radio Astronomers.
Проверено 24 августа 2006.
Архивировано из первоисточника 24 мая 2012.
↑ The International Occultation Timing Association.
Проверено 24 августа 2006.
Архивировано из первоисточника 21 августа 2006.
↑ Edgar Wilson Award.
IAU Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams.
Проверено 24 октября 2010.
Архивировано из первоисточника 24 октября 2010.
↑ American Association of Variable Star Observers.
AAVSO.
Проверено 3 февраля 2010.
Архивировано из первоисточника 2 февраля 2010.
Литература[править | править вики текст]
Кононович Э. В., Мороз В. И. Общий курс Астрономии / Под ред. Иванова В. В..
— 2 е изд.
— М.: Едиториал УРСС, 2004.
— 544 с. — (Классический университетский учебник).
— ISBN 5-354-00866-2. (Проверено 31 октября 2012)
Стивен Маран.
Астрономия для «чайников» = Astronomy For Dummies.
— М.: «Диалектика», 2006.
— С.
