Mars
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Mars
Other names Red Planet
Orbital characteristics of the perihelion 2,06655·108 km[1][2]
1,381 a.
e. [1]
Aphelion 2,49232·108 km[1][2]
1,666 a.
e. [1]
The big half axis (a) 2,2794382·108 km[1][2]
1.523662 a.
e. [1]
1,524 earth[1]
The eccentricity of the orbit (e) is 0.0933941[1][2]
Sidereal circulation period (duration of the year)
686.98 earth days
1,8808476 earth years[2][1]
The synodic period of circulation is 779.94 earth days[2]
Orbital velocity (v) 24.13 km / s (average)[2]
24.077 km / s[1]
Inclination (i)
1.85061° (relative to the ecliptic plane)[2]
5.65° (relative to the solar equator)
The longitude of the ascending node (Ω) is 49.57854°
The argument of the pericenter (ω) is 286.46230°
Whose satellite is the Sun
Phobos and Deimos satellites
Physical Characteristics Polar compression 0.00589 (1.76 Earth)
The equatorial radius is 3396.2 km[3][4]
0.532 earth
The polar radius is 3376.2 km[3][4]
0.531 earth
The average radius is 3389.5 km[1][2]
0.5320 earth
Surface area (S) 144,371,391 km2 (0.283 terrestrial)[1]
Volume (V) 1,6318 ·1011 km3[2][1]
0.151 earth
Weight (m) 6,4185·1023 kg[2][1]
0.107 earth
The average density (p) is 3,933 g / cm3[2][1]
0.714 earth
The acceleration of gravity at the equator (g) is 3,711 m/s2
0,378 g[1]
The second cosmic speed (v2) is 5.03 km / s
0.45 earth [2][1]
The equatorial rotation speed is 868.22 km / h
Rotation period (T) 24 hours 37 minutes 22.663 seconds[1] (24.6229 h) - sidereal rotation period,
24 hours, 39 minutes, 35.244 seconds (24.6597 hours) is the duration of an average sunny day[5].
Axis tilt 25,1919°[5]
Right ascension of the North Pole (α) 317.681°[2]
The declination of the north pole (δ) is 52.887°[2]
Albedo 0.250 (Bond)[2]
0.150 (geom. albedo)
0,170[2]
Surface temperature from -140°C to +20°C
min. of environments.
max.
all over the planet 186 K;
−87 °C[1] 210 K
(−63 °C)[2] 268 K;
−5 °C[1]
Atmosphere[2] Atmospheric pressure 0.4-0.87 kPa
(4·10-3-8, 7·10-3 atm)
Composition: 95.32 % carbon dioxide[2]
2.7 % nitrogen
1.6 % argon
0.13 % oxygen
0.08 % carbon monoxide
0.021 % water vapor
0.01 % nitric oxide
Information in Wikidata
Mars is the fourth most distant planet from the Sun and the seventh largest in the Solar system; the mass of the planet is 10.7 % of the mass of the Earth.
It is named after Mars — the ancient Roman god of war, corresponding to the ancient Greek Ares.
Sometimes Mars is called the "red planet" because of the reddish hue of the surface, given to it by iron oxide.
Mars is a planet of the Earth group with a rarefied atmosphere (the pressure at the surface is 160 times less than that of Earth).
The features of the surface relief of Mars can be considered impact craters like lunar ones, as well as volcanoes, valleys, deserts and polar ice caps like terrestrial ones.
Mars has two natural satellites Phobos and Deimos (translated from ancient Greek — "fear" and "horror", the names of two sons of Ares who accompanied him in battle), which are relatively small (Phobos — 26.8×22.4×18.4 km, Deimos 15×12.2×10.4 km)[6][7] and have an irregular shape.
Since the 1960s, the direct exploration of Mars with the help of AMC was the Soviet Union (the program "Mars" and "Phobos"), USA (program "Mariner", "Viking", "Mars Global Surveyor" and others), the European space Agency (the "Mars Express"), and India (the "Mars Orbiter mission").
Today, after Earth, Mars is the most studied planet in the Solar system.
Content
1 Basic information 2 Orbital characteristics 3 Physical characteristics 3.1 Parameters of the planet 3.2 Martian day 3.3 Seasons on Mars
4 Atmosphere and climate 4.1 Atmospheric pressure 4.2 Climate 4.3 Dust storms and dust vortices
5 Surface 5.1 Main regions 5.2 Ice and polar caps 5.3 Riverbeds and other features 5.4 Soil
6 Geology and internal structure 6.1 Magnetic field 6.2 Geological history
7 Satellites 8 Life 8.1 Background 8.2 Actual data
9 Astronomical observations from the surface of Mars 9.1 The celestial sphere 9.2 The Sun and planets
10 History of Exploration 10.1 Exploration of Mars by classical methods of astronomy 10.2 Exploration of Mars by spacecraft 10.2.1 Exploration using orbital telescopes 10.2.2 Exploration of Mars by interplanetary stations 10.2.3 Soviet Studies 10.2.4 American studies in the XX century 10.2.5 In our time
11 In culture 11.1 In ancient mythology
12 See also 13 Notes 14 References 15 References
Basic information[edit / edit wiki text]
Mars is the fourth planet in the Solar system in terms of distance from the Sun (after Mercury, Venus and Earth) and the seventh in size (surpasses only Mercury in mass and diameter) [8].
The mass of Mars is 10.7 % of the mass of the Earth (6,423·1023 kg versus 5,9736·1024 kg for the Earth), the volume is 0.15 of the volume of the Earth, and the average linear diameter is 0.53 of the diameter of the Earth (6800 km) [7].
The relief of Mars has many unique features.
The Martian extinct volcano Mount Olympus is the highest known mountain on the planets of the Solar System[9] (the highest known mountain in the Solar System is on the asteroid Vesta[10]), and the Mariner Valley is the largest known canyon on the planets (the largest canyon in the solar system was discovered on Pluto's moon Charon[11]).
In addition, in June 2008, three articles published in the journal "Nature" presented evidence of the existence of the largest known impact crater in the Solar System in the northern hemisphere of Mars.
Its length is 10.6 thousand km, and its width is 8.5 thousand km, which is about four times larger than the largest impact crater previously also discovered on Mars, near its south pole[12].
Mars has a rotation period and a change of seasons similar to Earth's, but its climate is much colder and drier than Earth's.
Until the flight to Mars of the automatic interplanetary station "Mariner 4" in 1965, many researchers believed that there was water in a liquid state on its surface.
This opinion was based on observations of periodic changes in light and dark areas, especially in the polar latitudes, which were similar to continents and seas.
Dark long lines on the surface of Mars were interpreted by some observers as irrigation channels for liquid water.
Later it was proved that most of these dark lines are an optical illusion.
13].
The great oppositions of Mars (the distance to the Earth is less than 60 million km), 1830-2050, the date of Separation.,
a.
e. september 19, 1830 0.388 August 18, 1845 0.373 July 17, 1860 0.393 September 5, 1877 0.377 August 4, 1892 0.378 September 24, 1909 0.392 August 23, 1924 0.373 July 23, 1939 0.390 September 10, 1956 0.379 August 10, 1971 0.378 September 22, 1988 0.394 August 28, 2003 0.373 July 27, 2018 0.386 September 15, 2035 0.382 August 14, 2050 0.374
In fact, due to the low pressure, water cannot exist in a liquid state for the most part (about 70 %) of the surface of Mars.
Water in the state of ice was discovered in the Martian soil by NASA's Phoenix spacecraft.
At the same time, the geological data collected by the Spirit and Opportunity rovers suggest that in the distant past, water covered a significant part of the surface of Mars.
Observations over the past decade have revealed weak geyser activity in some places on the surface of Mars.
According to observations from the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft, some parts of the southern polar cap of Mars are gradually retreating.
18].
From February 2009 to the present, the orbital research group in the orbit of Mars has three functioning spacecraft: Mars Odyssey, Mars Express and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.
This is more than about any other planet besides Earth.
The surface of Mars is currently being explored by two rovers: "Opportunity "and"Curiosity".
There are also several inactive landers and rovers that have completed research on the surface of Mars.
Mars is clearly visible from Earth with the naked eye.
Its apparent magnitude reaches -2.91 m (at maximum approach to the Earth), second in brightness only to Jupiter (and then not always during the great confrontation) and Venus (but only in the morning or evening).
The opposition of Mars can be observed every two years.
The last time such a phenomenon was observed on Earth was from April 9 to April 14, 2014.
As a rule, during the great opposition (that is, when the opposition coincides with the Earth and Mars passes the perihelion of its orbit), orange Mars is the brightest object in the Earth's night sky (not counting the Moon), but this happens only once every 15-17 years for one or two weeks.
Orbital characteristics[edit / edit wiki text]
The minimum distance from Mars to the Earth is 55.76 million km[19] (when the Earth is exactly between the Sun and Mars), the maximum is about 401 million km (when the Sun is exactly between the Earth and Mars).
The distance between Earth and Mars (in AU) during the 2014-2061 confrontations.
The average distance from Mars to the Sun is 228 million km (1.52 AU), the period of rotation around the Sun is 687 Earth days[2].
The orbit of Mars has a rather noticeable eccentricity (0.0934), so the distance to the Sun varies from 206.6 to 249.2 million km.
The inclination of the orbit of Mars to the ecliptic plane is 1.85°[2].
Mars is closest to Earth during the opposition, when the planet is in the sky in the direction opposite to the Sun.
Confrontations are repeated every 26 months at different points in the orbit of Mars and Earth.
Once every 15-17 years, oppositions occur at a time when Mars is near its perihelion; in these traditionally called great oppositions, the distance to the planet is minimal (less than 60 million km), and Mars reaches the largest angular size of 25.1" and brightness of -2.88 m[20].
Physical characteristics[edit / edit wiki text]
Planet parameters[edit / edit wiki text]
According to the linear size, Mars is almost half the size of the Earth — its equatorial radius is 3396.9 km (53.2% of the Earth's).
The surface area of Mars is approximately equal to the land area on Earth[21].
The polar radius of Mars is about 20 km smaller than the equatorial one, although the rotation period of the planet is longer than that of the Earth, which gives reason to assume a change in the rotation speed of Mars over time[22].
Comparison of the size of the Earth (average radius of 6371 km) and Mars (average radius of 3386.2 km)
The mass of the planet is 6,418·1023 kg (11 % of the Earth's mass).
The acceleration of gravity at the equator is 3.711 m/s2 (0.378 Earth's); the first cosmic velocity is 3.6 km/s, the second is 5.027 km/s.
The Martian Day[edit / edit wiki text]
The rotation period of the planet is 24 hours 37 minutes 22.7 seconds (relative to the stars), the length of the average solar day (called sols) is 24 hours 39 minutes 35.24409 seconds, only 2.7% longer than the earth's day.
The Martian year consists of 668.6 Martian solar days.
Seasons on Mars[edit / edit wiki text]
Mars rotates around its axis, inclined to the perpendicular of the orbital plane at an angle of 25.19°[2].
The tilt of the axis of rotation of Mars provides a change of seasons.
At the same time, the elongation of the orbit leads to large differences in their duration — for example, the northern spring and summer, taken together, last 371 sols, that is, significantly more than half of the Martian year.
At the same time, they fall on the part of the orbit of Mars that is remote from the Sun.
Therefore, on Mars, the northern summer is long and cool, and the southern summer is short and relatively warm.
Atmosphere and climate[edit / edit wiki text]
Main articles: The Atmosphere of Mars, the Climate of Mars
The atmosphere of Mars, the image was taken by the artificial satellite "Viking" in 1976.
On the left, the "smiley crater" of Halle is visible
The temperature on the planet ranges from -153 °C at the pole in winter and up to more than +20 °C at the equator at noon.
The average temperature is -50 °C.
The atmosphere of Mars, consisting mainly of carbon dioxide, is very thin.
The pressure at the surface of Mars is 160 times less than that of Earth — 6.1 mbar at the average surface level.
Due to the large difference in altitude on Mars, the pressure at the surface varies greatly.
The approximate thickness of the atmosphere is 110 km.
According to NASA (2004), the atmosphere of Mars consists of 95.32% carbon dioxide; it also contains 2.7% nitrogen, 1.6% argon, 0.13% oxygen, 210 ppm water vapor, 0.08% carbon monoxide, nitric oxide (NO) — 100 ppm, neon (Ne) — 2.5 ppm, semi — heavy water hydrogen deuterium oxygen (HDO) 0.85 ppm, krypton (Kr) 0.3 ppm, xenon (Xe) - 0.08 ppm (the composition is given in volume fractions).
According to the data of the Viking lander (1976), about 1-2% of argon, 2-3% of nitrogen, and 95% of carbon dioxide were detected in the Martian atmosphere.
According to the data of the Mars 2 and Mars 3 AMS, the lower boundary of the ionosphere is located at an altitude of 80 km, the maximum electron concentration of 1.7×105 electrons/cm3 is located at an altitude of 138 km, the other two maxima are at altitudes of 85 and 107 km.
26].
Radio illumination of the atmosphere at radio waves of 8 and 32 cm, conducted by AMS "Mars 4" on February 10, 1974, showed the presence of the night ionosphere of Mars with the main maximum of ionization at an altitude of 110 km and an electron concentration of 4.6×103 electrons/cm3, as well as secondary maxima at an altitude of 65 and 185 km[26].
The rarefaction of the Martian atmosphere and the absence of the magnetosphere are the reason that the level of ionizing radiation on the surface of Mars is significantly higher than on the surface of the Earth.
The equivalent dose rate on the surface of Mars is on average 0.7 mSv / day (varying depending on solar activity and atmospheric pressure in the range from 0.35 to 1.15 mSv/day) and is mainly due to cosmic radiation; for comparison, on Earth, the average global equivalent dose of radiation from natural sources accumulated per year is 2.4 mSv, including 0.4 mSv from cosmic rays.
Thus, in one or two days, an astronaut on the surface of Mars will receive the same equivalent dose of radiation that he would receive on the surface of the Earth in a year. ]
Photo of the Martian soil at the landing site of the Phoenix spacecraft.
The elemental composition of the surface layer of the soil, determined according to the data of the landing vehicles, is not the same in different places.
The main component of the soil is silica (20-25 %), containing an admixture of iron oxide hydrates (up to 15 %), which give the soil a reddish color.
There are significant impurities of sulfur, calcium, aluminum, magnesium, and sodium compounds (units of percent for each)[80][81].
According to the data of the NASA Phoenix probe (landing on Mars on May 25, 2008), the pH ratio and some other parameters of Martian soils are close to those of Earth, and plants could theoretically be grown on them[82][83].
"In fact, we have found that the soil on Mars meets the requirements, and also contains the necessary elements for the emergence and maintenance of life both in the past, and in the present and future," said the project's lead researcher, chemist Sam Cunaves[84].
Also, according to him, many people can meet this alkaline type of soil (pH = 7.7) in "their own backyard", and it is quite suitable for growing asparagus[85].
There is also a significant amount of water ice in the ground at the landing site of the device[86].
The Mars Odyssey orbiter also found that there are deposits of water ice under the surface of the red planet[87].
Later, this assumption was confirmed by other devices, but the question of the presence of water on Mars was finally resolved in 2008, when the Phoenix probe, which landed near the north pole of the planet, received water from the Martian soil[15][88].
Data obtained by the Curiosity rover and released in September 2013 showed that the water content under the surface of Mars is much higher than previously thought.
In the rock from which the rover took samples, its content can reach 2 % by weight[89].
Geology and internal structure[edit / edit wiki text]
In the past, on Mars, as on Earth, there was a movement of lithospheric plates.
This is confirmed by the features of the magnetic field of Mars, the locations of some volcanoes, for example, in the province of Farsida, as well as the shape of the Mariner Valley[90].
The current state of affairs, when volcanoes can exist for a much longer time than on Earth, and reach gigantic sizes, suggests that this movement is rather absent now.
This is supported by the fact that shield volcanoes grow as a result of repeated eruptions from the same vent for a long time.
On Earth, due to the movement of the lithospheric plates, volcanic points constantly changed their position, which limited the growth of shield volcanoes and, perhaps, did not allow them to reach such a height as on Mars.
On the other hand, the difference in the maximum height of volcanoes can be explained by the fact that due to the lower gravity on Mars, it is possible to build higher structures that would not collapse under their own weight[91].
It is possible that there is weak tectonic activity on the planet, leading to the formation of shallow canyons observed from orbit[92][93].
Comparison of the structure of Mars and other planets of the Earth group
Modern models of the internal structure of Mars suggest that Mars consists of a crust with an average thickness of 50 km (the maximum estimate is no more than 125 km) [94], a silicate mantle and a core with a radius, according to various estimates, from 1480[94] to 1800 km[95].
The density in the center of the planet should reach 8.5 g / cm3.
The core is partially liquid and consists mainly of iron with an admixture of 14-18 % (by weight) sulfur [95], and the content of light elements is twice as high as in the Earth's core.
According to modern estimates, the formation of the core coincided with the period of early volcanism and lasted about a billion years.
The partial melting of mantle silicates took about the same time[91].
Due to the lower gravity on Mars, the pressure range in the mantle of Mars is much smaller than on Earth, which means that there are fewer phase transitions in it.
It is assumed that the phase transition of olivine to spinel modification begins at fairly large depths 800 km (400 km on Earth).
The nature of the relief and other signs suggest the presence of an asthenosphere consisting of zones of partially molten matter[96].
A detailed geological map has been compiled for some areas of Mars[97].
According to observations from orbit and analysis of the collection of Martian meteorites, the surface of Mars consists mainly of basalt.
There is some reason to assume that on part of the Martian surface, the material is more quartz containing than ordinary basalt, and may be similar to andesite stones on Earth.
However, these same observations can be interpreted in favor of the presence of quartz glass.
A significant part of the deeper layer consists of granular iron oxide dust[98][99].
Magnetic field[edit / edit wiki text]
A weak magnetic field was recorded near Mars.
According to the readings of the magnetometers of the Mars 2 and Mars 3 stations, the magnetic field strength at the equator is about 60 gamma, at the pole — 120 gamma, which is 500 times weaker than the Earth's.
According to the AMS "Mars 5", the magnetic field strength at the equator was 64 gamma, and the magnetic moment of the planetary dipole was 2.4×1022 oersted * cm2[100].
The magnetic field of Mars is extremely unstable, its intensity can vary from 1.5 to 2 times in different parts of the planet, and the magnetic poles do not coincide with the physical ones.
This suggests that the iron core of Mars is in comparative immobility in relation to its crust, that is, the mechanism of the planetary dynamo responsible for the Earth's magnetic field does not work on Mars.
Although there is no stable planetary magnetic field on Mars[101], observations have shown that parts of the planetary crust are magnetized and that there was a change of the magnetic poles of these parts in the past.
The magnetization of these parts turned out to be similar to band magnetic anomalies in the world ocean[102].
According to one theory published in 1999 and rechecked in 2005 (with the help of the unmanned Mars Global Survey station), these bands demonstrate plate tectonics 4 billion years ago — before the dynamo of the planet ceased to perform its function, which caused a sharp weakening of the magnetic field[103].
The reasons for such a sharp weakening are unclear.
There is an assumption that the functioning of the dynamo machine is 4 billion rubles.
years ago, it is explained by the presence of an asteroid that rotated at a distance of 50-75 thousand kilometers around Mars and caused instability in its core.
Then the asteroid descended to the Roche limit and collapsed[104].
However, this explanation itself contains unclear points and is disputed in the scientific community[105].
A global mosaic of 102 images obtained by the artificial satellite of Mars "Viking 1" on February 22, 1980
Geological history[edit / edit wiki text]
According to one of the hypotheses, in the distant past, as a result of a collision with a large celestial body, the rotation of the core stopped[106], as well as the loss of the main volume of the atmosphere.
The loss of light atoms and molecules from the atmosphere is a consequence of the weak attraction of Mars.
It is believed that the loss of the magnetic field occurred about 4 billion.
years ago.
Due to the weakness of the magnetic field, the solar wind penetrates almost unhindered into the atmosphere of Mars, and many of the photochemical reactions under the influence of solar radiation that occur in the ionosphere and above on Earth can be observed on Mars almost at its surface.
The geological history of Mars includes the following three epochs[107][108]:
The Noah's Era[109] (named after the "Noah's Earth", a region of Mars): the formation of the oldest preserved surface of Mars to this day.
It lasted for a period of 4.5-3.5 billion rubles.
years ago.
During this era, the surface was scarred by numerous impact craters.
The plateau of the province of Farsida was probably formed during this period with intensive water flow later.
Hesperian Era: from 3.5 billion up to 2.9—3.3 billion years ago.
years ago.
This epoch is marked by the formation of huge lava fields.
The Amazonian Era (named after the" Amazon Plain " on Mars): 2.9-3.3 billion.
years ago to the present day.
The areas formed during this era have very few meteorite craters, but otherwise they are completely different.
Mount Olympus was formed during this period.
At this time, lava flows were spreading in other parts of Mars.
Satellites[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Satellites of Mars
See also: Trojan asteroids of Mars
Phobos, taken on March 23, 2008 by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter
Deimos, taken on February 21, 2009 by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter
The passage of Phobos on the disk of the Sun.
Opportunity images
The natural satellites of Mars are Phobos and Deimos.
Both of them were discovered by the American astronomer Asaph Hall in 1877.
Phobos and Deimos have an irregular shape and are very small in size.
According to one hypothesis, they may represent asteroids captured by the gravitational field of Mars, like (5261) Eureka from the Trojan group of asteroids.
The satellites are named after the characters accompanying the god Ares — that is, Mars) - Phobos and Deimos, personifying fear and horror, who helped the god of war in battles[110].
Both satellites rotate around their axes with the same period as around Mars, so they are always turned to the planet by the same side (this is caused by the tidal capture effect and is typical for most satellites of planets in the Solar System, including the Moon).
The tidal influence of Mars gradually slows down the movement of Phobos, and, eventually, will lead to to the fall of the satellite to Mars (if the current trend continues), or to its disintegration[111].
On the contrary, Deimos is moving away from Mars.
The orbital period of Phobos is less than the period of Mars ' rotation, so for an observer on the surface of the planet Phobos (unlike Deimos and in general from all known natural satellites of the planets of the Solar system, except Metis and Adrastea) rises in the west and sets in the east[111].
Both satellites have a shape approaching a triaxial ellipsoid, Phobos (26.8×22.4×18.4 km) [6] is slightly larger than Deimos (15×12.2×11 km)[112].
The surface of Deimos looks much smoother due to the fact that most of the craters are covered with fine grained matter.
Obviously, on Phobos, which is closer to the planet and more massive, the substance ejected by meteorite impacts either struck the surface repeatedly or fell on Mars, while on Deimos it remained in orbit around the satellite for a long time, gradually settling and hiding the irregularities of the terrain.
Life[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Life on Mars
Background of the issue[edit / edit wiki text]
The popular idea that Mars is inhabited by intelligent Martians spread widely at the end of the XIX century.
Schiaparelli's observations of the so called channels, combined with a book by Percival Lowell on the same topic, made popular the idea of a planet whose climate was becoming drier, colder, which was dying and on which there was an ancient civilization performing irrigation work[113].
Schiaparelli's Map of Mars, 1888
Martian channels, sketched by astronomer P. Lowell, 1898.
Other numerous observations and announcements of famous people gave rise to the so called "Mars Fever" around this topic[114].
In 1899, while studying atmospheric radio interference using receivers at the Colorado Observatory, inventor Nikola Tesla observed a repeating signal.
He suggested that it could be a radio signal from other planets, for example, Mars.
In a 1901 interview, Tesla said that the idea occurred to him that interference could be caused artificially.
Although he could not decipher their meaning, it was impossible for him that they appeared completely by accident.
In his opinion, it was a greeting from one planet to another [115].
Tesla's hypothesis aroused the fervent support of the famous British physicist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), who, visiting the United States in 1902, said that, in his opinion, Tesla had caught a signal from the Martians sent to the United States[116].
However, even before leaving America, Kelvin began to strongly deny this statement: "In fact, I said that the inhabitants of Mars, if they exist, can undoubtedly see New York, in particular, the light from electricity"[117].
Actual data[edit / edit wiki text]
Scientific hypotheses about the existence of life on Mars in the past have been present for a long time.
According to the results of observations from Earth and data from the Mars Express spacecraft, methane was detected in the atmosphere of Mars.
Later, in 2014, NASA's Curiosity rover recorded a spike in methane content in the Martian atmosphere and found organic molecules in samples extracted during drilling of the Cumberland Rock.[118]
Distribution of methane in the Martian atmosphere during the summer period in the northern hemisphere.
In the conditions of Mars, this gas decomposes quite quickly, so there must be a constant source of its replenishment.
Such a source can be either geological activity (but active volcanoes on Mars have not been detected), or the vital activity of bacteria.
Interestingly, in some meteorites of Martian origin, formations have been found that resemble cells in shape, although they are inferior to the smallest terrestrial organisms in size[118][119].
One of these meteorites is ALH 84001, found in Antarctica in 1984.
ALH84001 under the microscope.
Important discoveries were made by the Curiosity rover.
In December 2012, data were obtained on the presence of organic substances on Mars, as well as perchlorates.
The same studies showed the presence of water vapor in heated soil samples[120].
An interesting fact is that Curiosity landed on the bottom of a dried up lake on Mars[121].
The analysis of observations suggests that the planet previously had much more favorable conditions for life than now.
According to the Viking program, implemented in the mid 1970s, a series of experiments were conducted to detect microorganisms in the Martian soil.
It gave positive results: for example, a temporary increase in the release of CO2 when soil particles are placed in water and nutrient medium.
However, then this evidence of life on Mars was disputed by the scientists of the Viking team[122].
This led to their lengthy disputes with NASA scientist Gilbert Levin, who claimed that the "Viking" had discovered life.
After re evaluating the Viking data in the light of modern scientific knowledge about extremophiles, it was found that the experiments carried out were not perfect enough to detect these life forms.
Moreover, these tests could kill organisms, even if the latter were contained in the samples[123].
Tests carried out within the framework of the Phoenix program showed that the soil has a very alkaline pH and contains magnesium, sodium, potassium and chlorides[124].
There are enough nutrients in the soil to support life, but life forms must be protected from intense ultraviolet light[125].
To date, the condition for the development and maintenance of life on the planet is the presence of liquid water on its surface, as well as the location of the planet's orbit in the so called habitable zone, which in the Solar System begins behind the orbit of Venus and ends with the large semi axis of the orbit of Mars[126].
Near the perihelion, Mars is located inside this zone, but a thin atmosphere with low pressure prevents the appearance of liquid water for a long period.
Recent evidence suggests that any water on the surface of Mars is too salty and acidic to support permanent Earth like life[127].
The lack of a magnetosphere and the extremely rarefied atmosphere of Mars are also a problem for supporting life.
There is a very weak movement of heat flows on the surface of the planet, it is poorly isolated from the bombardment of solar wind particles; in addition, when heated, water instantly evaporates, bypassing the liquid state due to low pressure.
In addition, Mars is also on the verge of the so called "geological death".
The end of volcanic activity, apparently, stopped the circulation of minerals and chemical elements between the surface and the inner part of the planet[128].
Terraformed Mars in the artist's view.
The proximity of Mars and its relative similarity to Earth has given rise to a number of fantastic projects of terraforming and colonization of Mars by Earthlings in the future.
The Curiosity rover has discovered two sources of organic molecules on the surface of Mars at once.
In addition to a short term increase in the proportion of methane in the atmosphere, the device recorded the presence of carbon compounds in a powdery sample left over from drilling the Martian rock.
The first discovery was made by the SAM instrument on board the rover.
In 20 months, he measured the composition of the Martian atmosphere 12 times.
In two cases — in late 2013 and early 2014 — Curiosity was able to detect a tenfold increase in the average proportion of methane.
This surge, according to the members of the scientific team of the rover, indicates the discovery of a local source of methane.
Whether it has a biological or other origin, experts find it difficult to confirm due to the lack of data for a full fledged analysis.
Astronomical observations from the surface of Mars[edit / edit wiki text]
After the landing of automatic vehicles on the surface of Mars, it became possible to conduct astronomical observations directly from the surface of the planet.
Due to the astronomical position of Mars in the Solar system, the characteristics of the atmosphere, the period of rotation of Mars and its satellites, the picture of the night sky of Mars (and astronomical phenomena observed from the planet) differs from the earth and in many ways seems unusual and interesting.
Heavenly sphere[edit / edit wiki text]
The north pole on Mars, due to the tilt of the planet's axis, is located in the constellation Cygnus (Equatorial coordinates: right ascension 21h 10m 42s, declination +52° 53.0' and are not marked by bright star nearest to the pole — dull sixth magnitude star BD +52 2880 (other designation — HR 8106, HD 201834, SAO 33185).
The South pole of the world (coordinates 9h 10m 42s and -52° 53,0) is a couple of degrees from the star Kappa Sails (the apparent magnitude of 2.5) — it is, in principle, can be considered the southern Polar star of Mars.
The view of the sky is similar to that observed from Earth, with one difference: when observing the annual movement of the Sun through the constellations of the Zodiac, it (like other planets, including Earth), leaving the eastern part of the constellation Pisces, will pass for 6 days through the northern part of the constellation Whale before re entering the western part of Pisces.
During sunrise and sunset, the Martian sky at the zenith has a reddish pink color[129], and in the immediate vicinity of the Sun's disk - from blue to purple, which is completely opposite to the picture of the earth's dawns.
Sunset on Mars on May 19, 2005.
A picture of the Spirit rover, which was located in the Gusev crater.
At noon, the sky of Mars is yellow orange.
The reason for such differences from the color scheme of the Earth's sky is the properties of a thin, sparse, containing weighting the red dust of the Martian atmosphere.
On Mars, Rayleigh scattering of rays (which on Earth is the cause of the blue color of the sky) plays an insignificant role, its effect is weak, but it manifests itself in the form of a blue glow at sunrise / sunset, when the light passes a thicker layer of air.
Presumably, the yellow orange color of the sky is also caused by the presence of 1% magnetite in dust particles constantly suspended in the Martian atmosphere and raised by seasonal dust storms.
Twilight begins long before sunrise and lasts long after sunset.
Sometimes the color of the Martian sky turns purple as a result of light scattering on microparticles of water ice in clouds (the latter is a rather rare phenomenon)[129].
The sun and the planets[edit / edit wiki text]
The angular size of the Sun observed from Mars is smaller than that seen from Earth and is 2⁄3 of the latter.
Mercury from Mars will be almost inaccessible to observations with the naked eye due to its extreme proximity to the Sun.
The brightest planet in the sky of Mars is Venus, in second place is Jupiter (its four largest satellites can be observed part of the time without a telescope), in third place is Earth[130].
The Earth is an inner planet in relation to Mars, just as Venus is for the Earth.
Accordingly, from Mars, the Earth is observed as a morning or evening star, rising before dawn or visible in the evening sky after sunset.
The maximum elongation of the Earth in the sky of Mars is 38 degrees.
To the naked eye, the Earth will be visible as a bright (maximum apparent magnitude of about -2.5 m) greenish star, next to which a yellowish and dimmer (about +0.9 m) star of the Moon will be easily discernible[131].
In a telescope, both objects will be visible with the same phases.
The Moon's orbit around the Earth will be observed from Mars as follows: at the maximum angular distance of the Moon from the Earth, the naked eye will easily separate the Moon and the Earth: in a week ,the "stars" of the Moon and the Earth will merge into a single star that is inseparable by the eye, in another week the Moon will again be visible at the maximum distance, but on the other side of the Earth.
Periodically, an observer on Mars will be able to see the passage (transit) The Moon on the disk of the Earth or, conversely, the covering of the Moon by the disk of the Earth.
The maximum apparent distance of the Moon from the Earth (and their apparent brightness) when observed from Mars will vary significantly depending on the relative position of the Earth and Mars, and, accordingly, the distance between the planets.
During the epochs of oppositions, it will be about 17 minutes of arc (about half the angular diameter of the Sun and Moon when observed from Earth), at the maximum distance of the Earth and Mars — 3.5 minutes of arc.
The Earth, like other planets, will be observed in the band of constellations of the Zodiac.
An astronomer on Mars will also be able to observe the passage of the Earth through the disk of the Sun; the nearest such phenomenon will occur on November 10, 2084[132].
History of studying[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Mars Exploration
Exploration of Mars by classical methods of astronomy[edit / edit wiki text]
Images of Mars with different degrees of detail in different years.
The first observations of Mars were carried out before the invention of the telescope.
These were positional observations in order to determine the positions of the planet in relation to the stars.
The existence of Mars as a wandering object in the night sky was attested in writing by ancient Egyptian astronomers in 1534 BC .
They also established the retrograde (backward) movement of the planet and calculated the trajectory of movement along with the point where the planet changes its movement relative to the Earth from straight to backward[133].
In the Babylonian planetary theory, time measurements of the planetary motion of Mars were obtained for the first time and the position of the planet in the night sky was clarified.
Using the data of the Egyptians and Babylonians, ancient Greek (Hellenistic) philosophers and astronomers developed a detailed geocentric model to explain the movement of the planets.
Several centuries later, Indian and Islamic astronomers estimated the size of Mars and the distance to it from the Earth.
In the XVI century, Nicolaus Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model to describe the Solar system with circular planetary orbits.
His results were revised by Johannes Kepler, who introduced a more accurate elliptical orbit of Mars, coinciding with the observed one.
The Dutch astronomer Christian Huygens was the first to make a map of the surface of Mars, reflecting many details.
On November 28, 1659, he made several drawings of Mars, which displayed various dark areas, later compared with the Great Sirte Plateau[136].
Presumably, the first observations that established the existence of an ice cap at the south pole on Mars were made by the Italian astronomer Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1666.
In the same year, when observing Mars, he made sketches of visible surface details and found out that after 36 or 37 days, the positions of the surface details are repeated, and then calculated the rotation period — 24 hours.
40 m. (this result differs from the correct value by less than 3 minutes)[136].
In 1672, Christian Huygens noticed an indistinct white cap at the north pole[137]
In 1888, Giovanni Schiaparelli gave the first names to individual details of the surface[138]: the Aphrodite seas, the Eritrean, the Adriatic, the Cimmerian; the lakes of the Sun, the Moon and the Phoenix.
The heyday of telescopic observations of Mars occurred at the end of the XIX mid XX century.
It is largely due to public interest and well known scientific disputes around the observed Martian channels.
Among the astronomers of the pre space era who conducted telescopic observations of Mars during this period, the most famous are Schiaparelli, Percival Lovell, Slipher, Antoniadi, Barnard, Jarry Deloge, L. Eddy, Tikhov, Vaucouleur.
It was they who laid the foundations of areography and compiled the first detailed maps of the surface of Mars — although they turned out to be almost completely wrong after the flights of automatic probes to Mars.
Exploration of Mars by spacecraft[edit / edit wiki text]
Studying with the help of orbital telescopes[edit / edit wiki text]
The Hubble Space Telescope.
For the systematic study of Mars, [139] the capabilities of the Hubble Space Telescope (KTH or HST — Hubble Space Telescope) were used, while photos of Mars with the highest resolution ever taken on Earth were obtained[140].
CTX can create images of hemispheres, which allows you to simulate weather systems.
Ground based telescopes equipped with a CCD can make high definition photographic images of Mars, which makes it possible to regularly monitor the planetary weather in the opposition[141].
X ray radiation from Mars, first detected by astronomers in 2001 with the help of the Chandra space X ray observatory, consists of two components.
The first component is associated with the scattering of X rays of the Sun in the upper atmosphere of Mars, while the second comes from the interaction between ions with the exchange of charges[142].
Exploration of Mars by interplanetary stations[edit / edit wiki text]
Since the 1960s, several automatic interplanetary stations (AMS) have been sent to Mars for a detailed study of the planet from orbit and photographing the surface.
In addition, remote sensing of Mars from Earth continued in most of the electromagnetic spectrum using ground based and orbital telescopes, for example, in the infrared to determine the composition of the surface, in the ultraviolet and submillimeter ranges — to study the composition of the atmosphere, in the radio range — to measure wind speed.
146].
Soviet studies[edit / edit wiki text]
One of the first color photos of Mars obtained from the AMS "Mars 3".
The Soviet Mars research included the Mars program, within the framework of which, from 1962 to 1973, automatic interplanetary stations of four generations were launched to explore the planet Mars and near planetary space.
The first AMS ("Mars 1"," Probe 2") also explored interplanetary space.
The fourth generation spacecraft (the M 71 series - "Mars 2", "Mars 3", launched in 1971) consisted of an orbital station — an artificial satellite of Mars and a lander with an automatic Mars station, equipped with the Mars rover"PrOP M".
The spacecraft of the M 73P series "Mars 4" and " Mars 5 "were supposed to enter orbit around Mars and provide communication with automatic Martian stations that carried the M 73P series" Mars 6 "and" Mars 7"; these four AMS were launched in 1973.
Due to the failures of the descent vehicles, the main technical task of the entire Mars program — conducting research on the surface of the planet using an automatic Mars station — was not solved.
Nevertheless, many scientific tasks, such as obtaining photographs of the surface of Mars and various measurements of the atmosphere, magnetosphere, and soil composition, were advanced for their time[147].
The program included the first soft landing of a lander on the surface of Mars ("Mars 3", December 2, 1971) and the first attempt to transmit an image from the surface.
The USSR also implemented the Phobos program — two automatic interplanetary stations designed to explore Mars and its satellite Phobos.
The first AMS "Phobos 1" was launched on July 7, and the second, "Phobos 2" — on July 12, 1988[148].
The main task — the delivery of descent vehicles (PrOP F and DAS) to the surface of Phobos to study the satellite of Mars remained unfulfilled.
However, despite the loss of communication with both spacecraft, the studies of Mars, Phobos and near Martian space, performed during 57 days at the stage of the orbital movement of Phobos 2 around Mars, allowed us to obtain new scientific results about the thermal characteristics of Phobos, the plasma environment of Mars, its interaction with the solar wind.
American Studies in the XX century[edit / edit wiki text]
A photo of the Kidonia area taken by the Viking 1 station in 1976.
In 1964, the first successful launch to Mars was carried out in the United States as part of the Mariner program.
"Mariner 4" carried out the first study from the flight path and took the first pictures of the surface.
"Mariner 6 "and" Mariner 7", launched in 1969, made the first study of the composition of the atmosphere from a flight path using spectroscopic techniques and determining the surface temperature from infrared radiation measurements.
In 1971, Mariner 9 became the first artificial satellite of Mars and carried out the first mapping of the surface.
The next US program — "Viking" - included the launch in 1975 of two identical spacecraft - "Viking 1" and "Viking 2", which conducted research from near Martian orbit and on the surface of Mars, in particular, the search for life in soil samples.
Each Viking consisted of an orbital station — an artificial satellite of Mars — and a lander with an automatic Mars station.
The Vikings automatic Martian stations are the first spacecraft that successfully worked on the surface of Mars and transmitted photos from the landing site.
Life could not be detected.
Mars Pathfinder is a NASA lander that worked on the surface in 1996-1997.
Spirit
Opportunity
Sojourner
Viking 1
Viking 2
Phoenix
Mars 3
Curiosity
Schiaparelli
In our time[edit / edit wiki text]
Mars Global Surveyor is a NASA orbiter that carried out surface mapping in 1999-2007.
Phoenix is a NASA lander that worked on the surface in 2008.
Spirit is a rover that worked on the surface in 2004-2010.
At the moment (2016), there are several working AMS in the orbits of artificial satellites of Mars:
"Mars Odyssey "(since October 24, 2001), "Mars Express" (since December 25, 2003), "Martian Reconnaissance Satellite" (since March 10, 2006), "MAVEN" (since September 21/22, 2014)[150][151], "Mangalyaan" (since September 24, 2014)[152].
Trace Gas Orbiter (since October 19, 2016)
Rovers are working on the surface of the planet:
"Opportunity" (since January 25, 2004)," Curiosity " (Mars Science Laboratory) (since August 6, 2012).
In culture[edit / edit wiki text]
An illustration of a Martian tripod from the 1906 French edition of The War of the Worlds.
A frame from the movie Ya.
Protazanova "Aelita" (1924).
Main article: Mars in culture
Writers were encouraged to create fantastic works about Mars by the discussions of scientists that began at the end of the XIX century about the possibility that there is not just life on the surface of Mars, but a developed civilization[153].
At this time, for example, the famous novel by G. Wells "The War of the Worlds" was created, in which the Martians tried to leave their dying planet to conquer the Earth.
In 1938, a radio version of this work was presented in the United States in the form of a news radio broadcast, which caused a mass panic when many listeners mistakenly mistook this "report" for the truth[154].
In 1966, the writers Arkady and Boris Strugatsky wrote a satirical "continuation" of this work called "The Second Invasion of the Martians".
In 1917-1964, eleven books about Barsoom were published.
This was the name of the planet Mars in the fantasy world created by Edgar Rice Burroughs.
In his works, the planet was presented as a dying one, whose inhabitants are in a continuous war of everyone with everyone for scarce natural resources.
In 1938, C. Lewis wrote the novel "Beyond the silent Planet".
Among the important works about Mars, it is also worth noting Ray Bradbury's novel "The Martian Chronicles", published in 1950, consisting of separate loosely related short stories, as well as a number of stories adjacent to this cycle; the novel tells about the stages of human exploration of Mars and contacts with the dying ancient Martian civilization.
In the fictional Warhammer 40,000 universe, Mars is the main stronghold of Adeptus Mechanicus, the first of the forge worlds.
Factories of Mars, covering the entire surface of the planet, produce weapons and military equipment around the clock for the war raging in the Galaxy.
It is noteworthy that Jonathan Swift mentioned the moons of Mars 150 years before they were actually discovered, in the 19th part of his novel "Gulliver's Travels"[155].
In ancient mythology[edit / edit wiki text]
Main article: Mars (mythology)
Statue of the God of War Mars (Brandenburg Gate, Berlin)
"Mars and his children", an illustration from a medieval German book, 1480
In Roman mythology, Mars was originally the god of fertility; it was believed that he could either cause the destruction of crops or the death of livestock, or turn them away.
In his honor, the first month of the Roman year, in which the rite of expelling winter was performed, was named March.
Then Mars was identified with the Greek Ares and became the god of war, and also began to personify the planet Mars[156].
The wolf and the woodpecker were considered sacred animals of Mars.
In many Romance languages, the day of the week is named after Mars — Tuesday (rum. marţi, Spanish martes, French mardi, Italian. martedì).
In Babylonia, the same planet was called Nergal[157] and was associated with the god of the underworld[158].
In Hindu mythology, the planet is associated with the god Mangala, who was born from the sweat drops of Shiva[159].
See also[edit / edit wiki text]
Hydrosphere of Mars Colonization of Mars Martian channels Kidonia (Mars) Martian hoax List of names of details of the relief of Mars in Russian
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