Byzantium, the Byzantine Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire (395[4]-1453) — a state formed in 395 as a result of the final division of the Roman Empire, after the death of Emperor Theodosius I, into western and eastern parts.
Less than eighty years after the partition, the Western Roman Empire ceased to exist, leaving Byzantium as the historical, cultural and civilizational successor of Ancient Rome for almost ten centuries of the history of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages[5][6].
The name "Byzantine" Eastern Roman Empire was received in the works of Western European historians after its fall, it comes from the original name of Constantinople Byzantium (Greek: ΒυζΆντιον, Lat. Byzantivm), where the Roman Emperor Constantine I moved the capital of the Roman Empire in 330, officially renaming the city "New Rome" [7].
The Byzantines themselves called themselves the Romans — in Greek, "Romans"[7], and their state — the " Roman ("Romaic") Empire" (in the Middle Greek (Byzantine) language — ΒασιλείΑωΩμαίΩν, Basil Romeon) or briefly "Romania" (ωΩμανίΑ, Romania).
Western sources throughout most of Byzantine history called it the "empire of the Greeks" because of the predominance of the Greek language, Hellenized population and culture in it since the seventh century.
In Ancient Russia, Byzantium was usually called the "Greek Kingdom", and its capital — Constantinople.
The permanent capital and civilizational center of the Byzantine Empire was Constantinople[8], one of the largest cities in the medieval world.
The empire controlled the largest possessions under Emperor Justinian I (527-565), regaining for several decades a significant part of the coastal territories of the former western provinces of Rome and the position of the most powerful Mediterranean power.
In the future, under the onslaught of numerous enemies, the state gradually lost land.
After the Slavic, Lombard, Visigothic and Arab conquests, the empire occupied only the territory of Greece and Asia Minor.
Some strengthening in the IX XI centuries was replaced by serious losses at the end of the XI century, during the invasion of the Seljuks, and the defeat at Manzikert, strengthening under the first Komnenes, after the collapse of the country under the blows of the Crusaders who took Constantinople in 1204, another strengthening under John Vatats, the restoration of the empire by Michael Palaiologos, and finally, the final death in the middle of the XV century under the onslaught of the Ottomans.
Contents [hide] · 1terminology · 2History · 2.1 The division of the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western * 2.2 The formation of an independent Byzantium · 2.3 The VI century.
The Emperor Justinian * 2.4 After Justinian.
VI VII centuries · 2.5 VIII century · 2.6 IX X centuries · 2.7 XI century.
Temporary strengthening of the Empire · 2.8 XII century.
The Age of the Komnenos, the Age of the Angels * 2.8.1 The reign of Alexios Komnenos · 2.8.2 The Reign of John and Manuel · 2.9 The crisis of the XIII century · 2.9.1 The Latin Empire · 2.9.2 the Nicene Empire · 2.10 The Restoration of the Empire · 2.11 the XIV XV centuries.
Crisis and Fall · 2.11.1 Fall of Constantinople · 3The Restoration experiments · 4The population and languages of Byzantium · 5The state Structure · 5.1 Byzantine Emperors · 6army · 7culture and Society · 8economy · 9science, Medicine, Law · 9.1 Law · 10The meaning of the Byzantine Empire · 11 "Greek Project" · 12see also · 13notes · 14Literature and documentary historical films · 15external links Terminology[edit / edit wiki text] The inhabitants of the Byzantine Empire called their country "the Roman Empire", " the Empire of the Romans "(Lat.
Imperium Romanum, Lat. Imperium Romanorum; Greek.
Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Greek.
Ἀρχὴ τῶν Ῥωμαίων).
The first use of the term "Byzantine" in relation to the Eastern Roman Empire was recorded in 1557, when the German historian Jerome Wolf published his work "Corpus Historiæ Byzantinæ".
The term comes from the ancient Greek name of the city of Constantinople Byzantium (Greek: ΒυζΆντιον, Lat. Byzantium).
Publication in Paris between 1648 and 1711 of the fundamental twenty four volume collection of Byzantine historical works[9] (also called: "Byzantine du Louvre" — the Byzantine Louvre)[10], as well as the publication in 1680 of the "History of Byzantium" by Charles Ducange, contributed to the further popularization of the term among French authors, such as Charles Louis de Montesquieu[11][12].
However, until the middle of the XIX century, it was not widely used in Western society.
In English language historiography, in particular, the first case of mentioning the "Byzantine Empire" was noted only in 1857 in the work of George Finlay[13].
History[edit / edit wiki text] Main article: The history of Byzantium About the prehistory see The History of Anatolia.
The division of the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western [edit / edit wiki text]
The maximum territory of the Roman Empire (117 AD under the Emperor Trajan) is indicated in green.
Superimposed (blue) — maximum Byzantium (under Emperor Justinian I, circa 550 BC) marked with a Red line of separation of the Eastern and Western Roman Empire (395 ad) B 330, the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great declared its capital the city of Byzantium, renaming it "New Rome" (Constantinople — the informal name).
Marxist historians explained this by the fact that since the end of the third century, as a result of the crisis of the slave owning mode of production, the economic and political isolation of the eastern regions of the Roman Empire from the western ones became more pronounced.
Due to the previous centuries old historical development, they were distinguished by a higher level of economic development and the center of the economic and political life of the empire was increasingly moving to the East[14].
Constantine I The new capital was located on the most important trade route from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, along which grain was transported.
In Rome, new contenders for the throne were constantly appearing.
Having defeated his rivals in grueling civil wars, Constantine wanted to create a capital that was initially and entirely subject to him alone.
A profound ideological revolution was also intended to serve this purpose: Christianity, which had recently been persecuted in Rome, was declared one of the official religions during the reign of Constantine I.
Thanks to Ambrose of Milan and Theodosius I, Constantinople became the capital of the Christian empire: Christianity became the state religion.
The final division of the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western occurred in 395 after the death of Theodosius I the Great.
Despite the common state Latin language, in the first centuries of its existence, the main difference between Byzantium and the Western Roman Empire was the predominance of Greek (Hellenistic) culture on its territory.
The differences grew, and within two centuries the state finally acquired its individual appearance[15].
The formation of an independent Byzantium[edit / edit wiki text] See also: Byzantine language The formation of Byzantium as an independent state can be attributed to the period 330-518.
During this period, numerous barbarian, mainly Germanic tribes penetrated the Roman territory through the borders on the Danube and the Rhine.
The situation in the East was no less difficult, and one could expect a similar ending after the Visigoths won the famous battle of Adrianople in 378, the emperor Valens was killed and King Alaric devastated the whole of Greece.
But soon Alaric went to the west — to Spain and Gaul, where the Goths founded their state, and the danger from them for Byzantium passed.
In 441, the Huns replaced the Goths.
Their leader Attila started a war several times, and only by paying a large tribute was it possible to buy him off.
In the battle of the peoples on the Catalaunian fields (451), Attila was defeated, but a year later he attacked Italy; faced with the resistance of the inhabitants and an epidemic in his army, he accepted the offer of Pope Leo I to pay tribute and retreated[16].
In the second half of the fifth century, the danger came from the Ostrogoths — Theodoric the Great ravaged Macedonia, threatened Constantinople, but he also went to the west, conquered Italy and founded his state on the ruins of Rome.
In the capital, there was an intense struggle between the parties of the chariot teams In Christianity, various currents fought and clashed: Arianism, Nestorianism, Monophysitism.
While in the West the popes, starting with Leo the Great (440-461), approved the papal monarchy, in the East the patriarchs of Alexandria, especially Cyril(422-444) and Dioscorus (444-451), tried to establish the papal throne in Alexandria.
In addition, as a result of these troubles, old national strife and separatist tendencies surfaced.
Political interests and goals were closely intertwined with the religious conflict.
Since 502, the Persians resumed their onslaught in the east, the Slavs and Bulgars began to migrate south of the Danube.
Internal troubles reached the extreme limits, a tense struggle between the "green" and "blue" parties (according to the colors of the chariot teams) was conducted in the capital.
Finally, the strong memory of the Roman tradition, which supported the idea of the need for the unity of the Roman world, constantly turned minds to the West.
To get out of this state of instability, a powerful hand was needed, a clear policy with precise and definite plans.
This policy was carried out by Justinian I. VI century.
Emperor Justinian[edit / edit wiki text] Main article: Justinian I
Justinian I is depicted on a mosaic from the Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna.
In 518, after the death of Emperor Anastasius, the head of the guard, Justin, a native of the Macedonian peasants, ascended to the throne.
Power would have been very difficult for this illiterate old man if Justinian's nephew had not been near him.
From the very beginning of the reign of Justin, his relative Justinian was actually in power — also a native of Macedonia, but he received an excellent education and had excellent abilities.
In 527, having received full power, Justinian began to fulfill his plans to restore the empire and consolidate the power of a single emperor.
He achieved an alliance with the dominant church.
Under Justinian, the emperor himself established an official confession, and pagans, Samaritans and heretics were forced to convert to an official confession under the threat of deprivation of civil rights and even death penalty.
The Byzantine Empire during the period of the greatest territorial expansion by 550 after the conquests of Justinian I Until 532, he was busy suppressing demonstrations in the capital and repelling the onslaught of the Persians, but soon the main direction of policy shifted to the west The barbarian kingdoms have weakened over the past half a century, the inhabitants called for a real restoration of the empire, and finally, even the kings of the Germans themselves recognized the legitimacy of Byzantine claims to suzerainty.
In 533, the army led by Belisarius struck at the Vandal states in North Africa.
The next target was Italy — a difficult war with the Ostrogothic kingdom (see Byzantine Gothic Wars) lasted for 20 years and ended in victory.
Invading the Visigothic kingdom in 554, Justinian also conquered the southern part of Spain.
As a result, the territory of the empire has almost doubled.
But these successes required too much expenditure of forces, which the Persians, Slavs, Avars and Huns were not slow to take advantage of, who, although they did not conquer significant territories, but ravaged many lands in the east of the empire.
Byzantine diplomacy also sought to ensure the prestige and influence of the empire throughout the outside world.
Thanks to the clever distribution of favors and money and the skilful ability to sow discord among the enemies of the empire, she brought under Byzantine rule the barbarian peoples (Seljuks, Khazars, Thracians, Phrygians, and other Turkic nomadic tribes) who roamed on the borders of the monarchy, and made them safe.
She included them in the sphere of influence of Byzantium by preaching Christianity.
The activity of missionaries who spread Christianity from the shores of the Black Sea to the plateaus of Abyssinia and the oases of the Sahara was one of the most characteristic features of Byzantine politics.
In addition to military expansion, Justinian's other most important task was administrative and financial reforms.
The economy of the empire was in a state of severe crisis, the administration was affected by corruption.
In order to reorganize the administration of Justinian, the codification of legislation and a number of reforms were carried out, which, although they did not solve the problem radically, undoubtedly had positive consequences.
Throughout the empire, construction was launched — the largest in scale since the" golden age " of the Antonines.
Culture was experiencing a new flourishing.
After Justinian.
VI VII centuries[edit / edit wiki text]
The territory of Byzantium by 600 AD .
The map shows the territorial losses of the empire in the Iberian and Apennine peninsulas However, greatness was bought at a high price — the economy was undermined by wars, the population became impoverished, and the successors of Justinian (Justin II (565-578), Tiberius II (578-582), Mauritius (582-602)) were forced to focus on defense and shift the direction of policy to the east.
Justinian's conquests proved to be fragile — at the end of the VI—VII centuries, Byzantium lost a significant part of the conquered regions in the West, retaining several disconnected territories in Italy, large islands in the western Mediterranean and the Carthaginian exarchate.
While the invasion of the Lombards took half of Italy from Byzantium, Armenia was conquered in 591 during the war with Persia, the confrontation with the Slavs and the Avars who settled on the Danube in the 560s continued in the north.
But already at the beginning of the next, VII century, the Persians resumed hostilities and achieved significant success due to numerous troubles in the empire.
In 610, the son of the exarch of Carthage, Heraclius, overthrew the emperor Phocas and founded a new dynasty that was able to withstand the dangers threatening the state.
It was one of the most difficult periods in the history of Byzantium — the Persians conquered Egypt, Syria and part of Asia Minor and threatened Constantinople, the Avars, Slavs and Lombards attacked the borders from all sides.
Heraclius won a number of victories over the Persians, transferred the war to their territory, after which the death of Shah Khosrow II and a number of uprisings forced them to abandon all their conquests and conclude peace.
But the extreme exhaustion of both sides in this war prepared a favorable ground for Arab conquests.
In 626, Constantinople was besieged by the Avars, Slavs and allied Persians.
The report about this event in the Old Georgian manuscript ("The Siege of Constantinople by the Scythians, who are Russians") and the Old Slavic manuscripts of the XV XVII centuries suggests that some of the besiegers were Slavs of the forest strip of the Middle Dnieper [17].
The attempt to take the city failed, disagreements broke out between the Avars and the Slavs, and they were forced to retreat.
In 634, Caliph Omar invaded Syria.
In 635, the Arabs captured Damascus.
The decisive battle between Byzantium and the Arab Caliphate for control of Syria took place on August 20, 636.
Although there are clearly inflated estimates, according to which the Byzantine emperor Heraclius gathered a 200 thousand army (according to other sources, even 400 thousand) to retake Syria, in reality the number of the Byzantine army at the Yarmuk River (Yarmuk) was noticeably less than 100 thousand people.
(Bolshakov 1993: 54).
The outcome of the battle was decided by natural conditions: a sandstorm disoriented the Byzantines.
The army of the Byzantines was multinational.
In addition to the Latin speaking peoples of the Balkans and the Greeks, Armenians and Christians of the Middle East joined the emperor's banner.
The Muslim Arabs have won.
Heraclius retreated to Constantinople.
Over the next 40 years, Egypt, North Africa, Syria, Palestine, Upper Mesopotamia were lost, and often the predominantly Nestorian and Miaphysitic population of these areas, exhausted by wars, considered the Arabs, who at first pursued a policy of religious tolerance and significantly reduced taxes, as their liberators.
The Arabs created a fleet and even besieged Constantinople.
But the new emperor, Constantine IV Pogonat (668-685), repelled their onslaught.
Despite the five year siege of Constantinople (673-678) from land and sea, the Arabs were unable to capture it.
The Greek fleet, to which the recent invention of the "Greek fire" provided superiority, forced the Muslim squadrons to retreat and defeated them in the waters of Sillum.
On land, the troops of the Caliphate were defeated in Asia.
The territory of Byzantium by 650 The dark color in the southeast indicates the expanding conquests of the Arab Caliphate.
From this crisis, the empire emerged more cohesive and monolithic, its national composition became more homogeneous, religious differences are mainly a thing of the past, since Monophysitism and Nestorianism have gained the main spread in the now lost Syria, Egypt and North Africa.
By the end of the VII century, the territory of Byzantium was no more than a third of the power of Justinian.
Its core consisted of lands inhabited by Greeks or Hellenized tribes who spoke Greek, the Greeks served in the navy, Greek, which had always been the main language of the Byzantine church, became the state language.
At the same time, the mass return of the Japhetids (Hellenes) began, called by some historians "the settlement of the Balkan Peninsula by Slavic tribes"[source not specified 43 days].
In the VII century, they settled on a large territory in Moesia, Thrace, Macedonia, Dalmatia, Istria, part of Greece and were even resettled in Asia Minor, while preserving their language, way of life, and culture.
The ethnic composition of the population also changed in the eastern part of Asia Minor: in addition to the Armenian, settlements of Persians, Syrians, and Arabs appeared.
In the VII century, significant reforms were carried out in the administration — instead of eparchies and exarchates, the empire was divided into femes subordinate to the stratigs.
The new national composition of the state led to the fact that the Middle Greek language became the state language, even the title of the emperor began to sound in Greek basileus (en:Basileus).
In the administration, the old Latin titles either disappear or are Hellenized, and new names take their place — logophetes, strategists, eparchs, drungarians.
In the army, where Asian and Armenian elements predominate, Greek becomes the language in which the order is given.
Although the Byzantine Empire until the last day continued to be called the Roman Empire, however, the Latin language fell out of use (with the exception of the border regions of the Empire and semi nomadic peoples, who continued to speak vulgar Latin, which arose Cyrillic, Romanian and Dalmatian language in Illyria and later established in the former Dacia after the retreat from the Balkans during the Seljuk conquest of Wallachia, and other Latin population in the earlier Slavic lands beyond the Danube, the Romanian language).
The Byzantine Empire by 717 At the beginning of the VIII century, temporary stabilization was again replaced by a series of crises — wars with Bulgarians, Arabs, continuous uprisings.
Finally, Leo the Isaurian, who ascended the throne under the name of Emperor Leo III and founded the Isaurian dynasty (717-867), managed to stop the collapse of the state and inflicted a decisive defeat on the Arabs.
After half a century of rule, the first two Isaurians made the empire rich and flourishing, despite the plague that devastated it in 747, and despite the unrest caused by iconoclasm.
The support of iconoclasm by the emperors of the Isaurian dynasty was due to both religious and political factors.
Many Byzantines at the beginning of the eighth century were dissatisfied with the excess of superstition, and especially with the place occupied by the worship of icons, the belief in their miraculous properties, the connection of human actions and interests with them; many were concerned about the religious evil that was thus inflicted on Christianity.
Byzantine icon of the Mother of God of Blachernae, defender of the Empire.
At the same time, the emperors sought to limit the growing power of the church.
In addition, by refusing to venerate icons, the Isaurian emperors hoped to get closer to the Arabs, who do not recognize images.
The policy of iconoclasm led to discord and turmoil, while at the same time strengthening the schism in relations with the Roman Church.
The restoration of icon worship occurred only at the end of the VIII century thanks to the Empress Irina — the first female empress, but already at the beginning of the IX century the policy of iconoclasm was continued.
IX X centuries[edit / edit wiki text] In 800, Charlemagne announced the restoration of the Western Roman Empire, which was a sensitive humiliation for Byzantium.
At the same time, the Baghdad Caliphate intensified its onslaught in the east.
The war with the Arabs, resumed in 804, led to two serious defeats: to the capture of the island of Crete by Muslim pirates (826), who began from here to ravage the eastern Mediterranean with almost impunity, and to the conquest of Sicily by North African Arabs (827), who in 831 captured the city of Palermo.
The treaty of 810, which recognized the title of emperor for Charlemagne, meant serious territorial losses in Italy, where Byzantium retained only Venice and the lands in the south of the peninsula.
The danger from the Bulgarians was especially formidable, since Khan Krum expanded the borders of his empire from the Hem to the Carpathians.
Nikephoros tried to defeat him by invading Bulgaria, but on the way back he was defeated and died (811), and the Bulgarians, having re captured Adrianople and the other fortresses on the approaches, appeared at the walls of Constantinople (813).
Having destroyed the military power of Byzantium in 811 and 813, Krum decided to take Constantinople with the help of a huge army and siege engines.
Only his sudden death saved the empire.
Emperor Leo V of Armenia (813-820) and two emperors of the Phrygian dynasty — Michael II (820-829) and Theophilus (829-842) — resumed the policy of iconoclasm.
Once again, for half a century, the empire was in the grip of troubles.
In 821-823, one of the largest civil wars in the Byzantine Empire took place — the uprising of Thomas the Slav.
Since the second half of the IX century, relations with the emerging Rus state in the north of the empire began to acquire significant importance for Byzantium.
For the first time, the Russ celebrated a campaign against Constantinople in 860.
The emperor immediately (860-862) sent the diplomat and theologian Konstantin "The Philosopher" and his brother, the monk Methodius, to the court of the Khazar khagan for missionary purposes, since the Khazar khaganate served at that time as an important buffer between Byzantium and the Varangians of Russia.
Shortly after the successful [source not specified 109 days] raid of the Russ, the so called First Baptism of Russia took place[source not specified 109 days], the place and circumstances of which are not reliably established.
In 863, Constantine the "Philosopher" and his brother Methodius were sent on a new Christian educational mission, now to the Slavs in Great Moravia.
Vasily I (left) and his son Leo VI the Wise.
Miniature from the chronicle of John Skilitsa The period of troubles ended in 867 with the coming to power of the Macedonian dynasty.
Basil I the Macedonian (867-886), Roman I Lakapin (919-944), Nikephoros II Phokas (963-969), John I Tzimiski (969-976), Basil II Bolgaroboitsa (976-1025) — emperors and usurpers — provided Byzantium with 150 years of prosperity and power.
Bulgaria, Crete, the south of the Apennines were conquered, successful military campaigns were made against the Arabs deep into Syria.
The borders of the empire expanded to the Euphrates and the Tigris, John Tzimiski reached Jerusalem.
Russian Russian Prince Oleg made a successful campaign to Constantinople in 907 and concluded the first Russian Byzantine trade agreement, according to the Chronicle of Bygone Years.
In 941, Prince Igor was defeated under the walls of Constantinople, but after that peaceful relations resumed.
The new ruler of Russia, Princess Olga, paid a visit to the capital of Byzantium and was baptized there.
The princess's son, Prince Svyatoslav, fought with Byzantium for Bulgaria in 970-971, having been defeated by Emperor John Tzimiski[source not specified for 1325 days].
By the year 1000, under his son, Prince Vladimir of Kiev, Byzantium managed to baptize Russia in 988, instead giving Vladimir the Crimson born Princess Anna, the sister of Emperor Vasily II, as a wife.
A military alliance was concluded between Byzantium and the Ancient Russian state, which operated until the 1040s.
Along with Latinized Christianity, Byzantine culture began to penetrate and spread to Russia.
XI century.
Temporary strengthening of the Empire[edit / edit wiki text]
The Byzantine Empire by 1025
Territorial division of the Byzantine Empire in 1025 In 1019, having conquered Bulgaria[18], a little later part of Armenia and part of Iberia, Basil II celebrated with a great triumph the greatest strengthening of the empire since the times preceding the Arab conquests.
The picture was completed by the brilliant state of finance and the flourishing of culture.
Basil II, crowned by angels.
A miniature from a contemporary manuscript — the famous luxuriously illustrated "Minology" - However, at the same time, the first signs of weakness began to appear, which was expressed in the strengthening of feudal fragmentation.
The nobility, who controlled vast territories and resources, often successfully opposed themselves to the central government.
The decline began after the death of Vasily II, under his brother Constantine VIII (1025-1028) and under the latter's daughters first under Zoya and her three successive husbands Roman III (1028-1034), Michael IV (1034-1041), Konstantin Monomakh (1042-1054), with whom she shared the throne (Zoya died in 1050), and then under Theodore (10 54—1056).
The weakening became even more pronounced after the end of the Macedonian dynasty.
As a result of a military coup, Isaac Komnenos (1057-1059) ascended to the throne; after his abdication, Constantine X Duca (1059-1067) became emperor.
Then Roman IV Diogenes (1067-1071) came to power, who was overthrown by Michael VII Duca (1071-1078); as a result of a new uprising, the crown went to Nikephoros Votaniates (1078-1081).
During these brief reigns, the anarchy increased, the internal and external crisis from which the empire suffered became more and more severe.
The Byzantine Empire by 1081, The current Italy of those times was lost by the middle of the XI century under the onslaught of the Normans, but the main danger was coming from the east — in 1071, Roman IV Diogenes was defeated by the Seljuks at Manzikert (Armenia), and Byzantium was never able to recover from this defeat.
In 1054, there was an official break between the Christian churches, which aggravated the strained relations to the limit.
Over the next two decades, the Turks occupied all of Anatolia; the empire could not create an army large enough to stop them.
In 1080, the independent Cilician Armenian state was formed on Cilicia, which broke away from the Byzantine Empire[19].
In despair, Emperor Alexios I Komnenos (1081-1118) in 1095 asked the Pope to provide military assistance.
Relations with the West predetermined the events of 1204 (the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders and the collapse of the country), and the rebellions of the feudal lords undermined the last forces of the country.
In 1081, the Komnenos dynasty (1081-1204), representatives of the feudal aristocracy, came to the throne.
The Seljuks remained in Iconium (the Konya Sultanate); in the Balkans, with the help of the expanding Hungary, the Slavic peoples created almost independent states; finally, the West also posed a serious danger in light of the ambitious political plans generated by the first Crusade and the economic claims of Venice.
XII century.
The era of the Komnenos, the era of the Angels[edit / edit wiki text] Main articles: Komnenos, Angels (dynasty)
The Byzantine Empire in 1180 The reign of Alexios Komnenos[edit / edit wiki text] In 1081, the young Byzantine commander Alexios Komnenos (emperor in 1081-1118) captured Constantinople and seized the imperial throne.
The state of the empire was critical.
In the east, the Seljuks approached the shores of the Sea of Marmara, while in the west, the Sicilian Normans were preparing an invasion of Greece.
The lands on the banks of the Danube were subjected to constant raids by the Pechenegs.
Thanks to the exertion of all available resources, Alexey managed to cope with external enemies: the Seljuks were pushed back from the shores of the Sea of Marmara, the Normans were repulsed from the walls of the coastal fortresses with heavy losses, the Pechenegs were driven back to the Danube.
The emperor also managed to break the resistance of representatives of the old elite, who organized a number of plots against him.
Despite certain successes, the situation of the empire remained difficult: the civil wars of the end of the XI century and constant external threats at the beginning of the reign of Alexei negatively affected the economy of Byzantium and the situation of its subjects.
The situation began to change after the beginning of the Crusades.
In 1097, the emperor obtained a vassal oath from the participants of the First Crusade passing through Constantinople, according to which the crusaders were to transfer the conquered lands to the Byzantines.
This oath was not fully fulfilled, but the Crusaders ' victories in Asia Minor, combined with the rapid actions of the imperial army, allowed Alexey to capture a number of key fortresses and subordinate the fertile valleys in the west of the peninsula to his power.
Agreements with the Crusaders allowed the emperor to claim Antioch, which was captured by one of the leaders of the campaign, Norman Bohemond of Tarentum.
The tension between the Normans and the Byzantines resulted in a new war (1107-1109), which ended with the defeat of the Normans at Dyrrhachium and the signing of the Devol Peace Treaty.
According to the text of the treaty (in the form in which it was preserved by Anna Komnena), Bohemond declared himself a vassal of the Byzantine emperor and renounced his claims to Antioch.
The victory at Dyrrhachium pushed the Norman threat into the background.
In the last years of his reign, Alexey Komnenos again fought against the conspiracies of internal opponents and personally took part in campaigns against the Seljuks.
In 1116, in a battle near Philomilia, Alexey defeated the Seljuk army and for some time limited the raids of nomads on the eastern borders of the empire.
The policy of gradually pushing the Seljuks deeper into Asia Minor was later continued by his son John.
Alexey's foreign policy successes were facilitated by his internal transformations.
The emperor built a new power around his family.
At the beginning of the XII century, all the key posts in the state were occupied either by relatives of the emperor, or by people connected with him by many years of joint service.
To strengthen the economy, Alexey carried out a financial reform, issuing a new coin, and streamlined taxation.
In addition, the emperor concluded a treaty with Venice.
This treaty opened new trade markets for the Republic of St. Mark and accelerated the development of commercial ties between Constantinople and the markets of Latin cities.
The Emperor was also actively engaged in construction activities.
The reign of John and Manuel [edit | edit wiki text] John II Komnenos (emperor in 1118-1143) led an active expansionist policy.
He conquered part of the Byzantine territories conquered by them earlier from the Turks.
He forced the Principality of Antioch to take a vassal oath (the latter was formal).
In 1142 John Komnenos intended to go to war against Antioch again in order to gain real control over the principality of Antioch, but death did not allow him to implement this plan.
The strengthening of the state and the army allowed the Komnenes to repel the Norman offensive in the Balkans, to win back a significant part of Asia Minor from the Seljuks, and to establish sovereignty over Antioch.
Manuel I forced Hungary to recognize the sovereignty of Byzantium (1164) and established his power in Serbia.
But in general, the situation continued to be difficult.
The behavior of Venice was especially dangerous — the former purely Greek city became a rival and enemy of the empire, created a strong competition for its trade.
In 1176, the Byzantine army was defeated by the Turks at Myriokephalon.
On all borders, Byzantium was forced to go on the defensive.
The Byzantine policy towards the Crusaders was to bind their leaders with vassal ties and return territories in the east with their help, but this did not bring much success.
Relations with the Crusaders were constantly deteriorating.
Like many of their predecessors,
The crusaders arrive in Constantinople.
The Second Crusade (1145-1149).
The Comnenians dreamed of restoring their power over Rome, whether by force or by an alliance with the Papacy, and destroying the Western Empire, the fact of whose existence had always seemed to them to be a usurpation of their rights.
Manuel I especially tried to realize these dreams.
It seemed that Manuel had gained the empire incomparable fame throughout the world and made Constantinople the center of European politics; but when he died in 1180, Byzantium was ruined and hated by the Latins, ready to attack it at any moment.
At the same time, a serious internal crisis was brewing in the country.
The crisis of the XIII century [edit | edit wiki text] After the death of Manuel I, a popular uprising broke out in Constantinople (1181), caused by dissatisfaction with the policy of the government, which patronized Italian merchants, as well as Western European knights who entered the service of the emperors.
Relations with the West deteriorated sharply in 1182, when the massacre of Latins took place in Constantinople: a mass pogrom against Catholic merchants with a huge number of victims.
The country was experiencing a deep economic crisis: feudal fragmentation increased, the actual independence of the provincial rulers from the central government, the cities fell into decline, the army and navy weakened.
Cyprus, Trebizond, and Thessaly, after the coming to power of the Angelic dynasty, actually did not obey the central government.
The collapse of the empire began.
In 1187, Bulgaria fell away; in 1190, Byzantium was forced to recognize the independence of Serbia.
When Enrico Dandolo became the Doge of Venice in 1192, the idea arose that the best way to resolve the crisis and satisfy the accumulated hatred of the Latins, as well as to ensure the interests of Venice in the East, would be the conquest of the Byzantine Empire.
The hostility of the pope, the harassment of Venice, the bitterness of the entire Catholic world after the massacre of the Latins all this together predetermined the fact that the fourth Crusade (1202-1204) turned instead of Palestine against Constantinople.
Exhausted, weakened by the onslaught of the Slavic states, Byzantium was unable to resist the crusaders.
Latin Empire[edit / edit wiki text]
The Byzantine Empire after the Fourth Crusade (1204) Main article: The Latin Empire Main article: The Siege and Fall of Constantinople (1204) Main article: Francocracy In 1204, the Crusader army captured Constantinople.
At the same time, a huge number of art monuments were lost, the city was looted[20][21].
Byzantium broke up into a number of states — the Latin Empire and the Achaean Principality, created in the territories captured by the Crusaders, and the Nicene, Trebizond and Epirus Empires the remaining I am under the control of the Greeks.
The Latins suppressed Greek culture in Byzantium, the dominance of Venetian merchants prevented the revival of Byzantine cities.
The Nicene Empire[edit / edit wiki text] Main article: The Nicene Empire The position of the Latin Empire was very precarious — the hatred of the Greeks and the attacks of the Bulgarians greatly weakened it
Baldwin II lived in Constantinople on funds begged from the pope and from Saint Louis, selected jewelry from churches and monasteries and borrowed money from Venetian bankers, to whom he provided all the economic resources of the country.
He had no troops, the Venetians kept a garrison in Constantinople, the very existence of the Latin Empire depended on whether the Europeans would come to save it at a dangerous moment.
Internecine wars took place between the successors of Asen, and the Bulgarian tsar Konstantin Tich was not able to prevent the plans of the Nicene emperor.
In the spring of 1261, the emperor of the Nicene Empire, Michael Palaiologos, concluded an alliance with Genoa, to which he granted extensive trade rights, to the detriment of the Venetians, and persuaded the help of the Genoese fleet to conquer Constantinople.
He sent to Europe an experienced general, Alexios Stratigopoulos, who entered into negotiations with the Greek population in the immediate vicinity of Constantinople, received accurate information about what was happening in the city among the Latins, and, after the expiration of the armistice, moved to Constantinople, from where the Venetian garrison had just been transferred to ships, with the aim of attacking the Genoese.
Restoration of the Empire[edit / edit wiki text]
The Byzantine Empire and the Balkan States around 1265 Main article: History of the Byzantine Empire (1261-1453) See also: The Capture of Constantinople (1261) On the night of July 25, 1261, Alexios Stratagopoulos crept up to the walls of Constantinople, entered the city without noise and took possession of it almost without resistance.
The Emperor Baldwin fled to Euboea.
Only the Venetians and some of the Latins tried to defend themselves in Galata, but Stratagopoulos set fire to this part of the city and deprived the Latins of any point of support, they also hurried to board ships and flee.
On August 15, 1261, Michael Palaiologos, having defeated the Latin Empire, solemnly entered Constantinople, announced the restoration of the Byzantine Empire and was crowned in the Church of St. Sophia.
In 1337, Epirus joined it.
But the Achaean principality — the only viable formation of the Crusaders in Greece existed until the beginning of the XV century, when it was conquered by the despot of the Morea.
It was no longer possible to restore the Byzantine Empire in its entirety.
Michael VIII Palaiologos (1261-1282) tried to implement this, and although he failed to fully realize his aspirations, nevertheless, his efforts, practical talents and flexible mind make him the last significant emperor of Byzantium.
In the face of the external danger that threatened the empire, it was necessary that it maintain unity, calm and strength.
The era of the Paleologians, on the contrary, was full of uprisings and civil unrest.
Michael VIII Palaiologos on his knees before Christ, on this coin, issued to celebrate the liberation of the imperial capital from the crusaders In Europe, the most dangerous opponents of Byzantium were the Serbs.
Under the successors of Stefan Nemani — Stefan Uros I (1243-1276), Stefan Dragutin (1276-1282), Stefan Uros II Milutin (1282-1321) — Serbia so expanded its territory at the expense of the Bulgarians and Byzantines that it became the most significant state on the Balkan peninsula.
XIV XV centuries.
Crisis and fall[edit / edit wiki text] The pressure of the Ottomans, led by three major military leaders — Ertogrul, Osman (1289-1326) and Urkhan (1326-1359), was constantly increasing.
Despite some successful attempts by Andronik II to stop them, in 1326 Bursa fell to the Ottomans, who turned it into their capital.
Then Nicaea was taken (1329), followed by Nicomedia (1337); in 1338 the Ottomans reached the Bosphorus and soon crossed it at the invitation of the Byzantines themselves, who persistently sought their alliance in the civil war.
In 1352-1354, the Ottomans occupied the Gallipoli Peninsula and began conquests in Europe.
This circumstance led to the fact that the emperors had to seek help in the west.
John V (1369) and then Manuel II (1417) had to resume negotiations with Rome for political reasons, and John VIII, in order to prevent the Ottoman danger, made a desperate attempt — the emperor personally appeared in Italy (1437) and at the Council of Florence signed a union with Eugene IV, which put an end to the division of the churches (1439).
The Byzantine Empire by 1355, but the common population did not accept Catholicism, and these attempts at reconciliation only aggravated internal strife.
Finally, the Ottoman conquests began to threaten the very existence of the country.
Murad I (1359-1389) conquered Thrace (1361), which John V Palaiologos was forced to recognize for him (1363); then he captured Philippopolis, and soon Adrianople, where he moved his capital (1365).
Constantinople, isolated, surrounded, cut off from the rest of the regions, was waiting outside its walls for a deadly blow that seemed inevitable.
Meanwhile, the Ottomans completed the conquest of the Balkan Peninsula.
The Maritsa they defeated southern Serbs and the Bulgarians (1371); they founded their colonies in Macedonia and began to threaten Thessaloniki (1374); they invaded Albania (1386), defeated the Serbian Empire after the battle of Kosovo was turned Bulgaria into the Ottoman pashalik (1393).
John V Palaeologus was forced to acknowledge himself a vassal of the Sultan, to pay him tribute, and put his troops to capture Philadelphia (1391) — the last stronghold, which belonged to the Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor.
Bayezid I (1389-1402) acted even more energetically against the Byzantine Empire.
He blocked the capital from all sides (1391-1395), and when the Western attempt to save Byzantium in the Battle of Nicopolis (1396) failed, he tried to storm Constantinople (1397) and at the same time invaded the Morea.
The invasion of Timur and the crushing defeat inflicted by Timur on the Ottomans at Angora (Ankara) (1402) gave the empire another twenty years of delay.
But in 1421 Murad II (1421-1451) resumed the offensive.
He attacked, though unsuccessfully, Constantinople, which vigorously resisted (1422); he captured Thessaloniki (1430), bought in 1423 by the Venetians from the Byzantines; one of his generals penetrated into the Morea (1423); he himself successfully operated in Bosnia and Albania and forced the sovereign of Wallachia (Moldavian principality) to pay tribute.
The Byzantine Empire in 1430, the Byzantine Empire, brought to an extreme, now owned, in addition to Constantinople and the neighboring region to Derkon and Selimvria, only a few separate regions scattered along the coast: Anchialus, Mesemvria, Athos and the Peloponnese, which, being almost completely conquered from the Latins, became as it were the center of the Greek nation.
Despite the heroic efforts of Janos Hunyadi, who defeated the Ottomans at Yalovac in 1443, despite the resistance of Skanderbeg in Albania, the Turks stubbornly pursued their goals.
In 1444, the last serious attempt of Eastern Christians to resist the Ottomans turned into a defeat in the Battle of Varna.
The Duchy of Athens submitted to them, the principality of Morea, conquered by the Ottomans in 1446, was forced to recognize itself as a tributary; in the second battle of the Kosovo Field (1448), Janos Hunyadi was defeated.
Only Constantinople remained — an impregnable citadel that embodied the entire empire.
But the end was coming for him, too.
Mehmed II, when he ascended the throne (1451), firmly intended to seize it.
The Fall of Constantinople[edit / edit wiki text] Main article: The Fall of Constantinople (1453) By the beginning of the XV century, Byzantium was a tiny state on the outskirts of Europe.
For the sake of its conquest, no one dared to storm the ancient walls of Constantinople.
Tamerlane's campaign gave Byzantium a few years of delay, but it was already impossible to change its fate.
A new powerful enemy appeared in the east — the Ottoman Turks.
A new and energetic ruler came to power over the Turks — Mehmed II, who set out to conquer the eternal city.
On April 5, 1453, the Turks began the siege of Constantinople, a holy city for the Byzantines.
Even earlier, the sultan had built a Rumelian fortress (Rumelikhisar) on the Bosphorus, which cut off communications between Constantinople and the Black Sea, and at the same time sent an expedition to the Morea to prevent the Greek despots of Mystra from helping the capital.
The city walls of Constantinople Against the Turkish army, consisting of about 180 thousand people, Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos was able to field barely 7,000 soldiers, of which at least a third were foreigners; the Byzantines, hostile to the ecclesiastical union concluded by their emperor, had no desire to fight.
Nevertheless, despite the power of the Turkish artillery, the first attack was repulsed (April 18).
Mehmed II managed to lead his fleet into the Golden Horn Bay and thus endanger another section of the fortifications.
However, the assault on May 7 again failed.
But a breach was made in the city rampart on the approaches to the gate of St. Roman.
Before the decisive battle, there was a discord among the Turks.
Many were in favor of lifting the siege.
Meanwhile, in Constantinople, Constantine XI made a solemn speech in which he called on the soldiers to fight to the last, recalled that they are descendants of ancient Rome and Greece.
This slightly encouraged the soldiers.
Everyone understood that a decisive battle would soon take place.
On the night of May 28 to May 29, 1453, the last attack began.
Twice the Ottomans were repulsed; then Mehmed threw the janissaries to storm.
At the same time, Genoese Giustiniani Longo, who was the soul of defense together with the emperor, was seriously injured and was forced to leave his post.
This disorganized the defense.
The emperor continued to fight valiantly, but part of the enemy army, having mastered the underground passage from the fortress — the so called Xyloport, attacked the defenders from the rear.
It was the end.
Konstantin Dragash threw off the symbols of imperial power and rushed into the thick of the battle.
He was killed in battle.
On May 30, 1453, at eight o'clock in the morning, Mehmed II solemnly entered the capital and ordered to convert the central cathedral of the city — the Hagia Sophia into a mosque.
The last remnants of the once great empire — Morea and Trebizond — fell under Ottoman rule in 1460 and 1461, respectively.
The Ottoman Empire moved to Europe.
Restoration attempts[edit / edit wiki text] In 1459, Pope Pius II convened a council in Mantua to discuss a Crusade to liberate Constantinople.
But the campaign never took place.
With the fall of Byzantium in the east, the theory of "Moscow — the Third Rome" began to spread in the young Moscow Principality.
Its rulers considered themselves both spiritual and political successors of the fallen Byzantium.
To secure this title, a marriage was concluded between the Russian Prince Ivan III Vasilyevich and Sofia Palaiologos.
The population and languages of Byzantium[edit | edit wiki text] See also: Armenians in Byzantium and Jews in Byzantium The national composition of the population of the Byzantine Empire, especially at the first stage of its history, was extremely diverse: Greeks (up to 10 million hours), Italians (Italians), Syrians, Copts(up to 4 million hours), Armenians(4 million hours), Jews(up to 6 million hours in 550 AD), Hellenized tribes of Asia Minor, Thracians, Illyrians, Dacians, southern and northern Slavs (Japhetids).
With the reduction in the territory of the Byzantine Empire (from the end of the VI century) part of the peoples remained outside, increased the percentage of the Armenian population (in consequence of the accession to the Empire of the Armenian provinces) and their influence, as in Empire invaded and settled the new peoples (Goths in the IV—V centuries, the Slavs in the VI—VII centuries, the Arabs in the VII—IX centuries, Pechenegs, Cumans in the XI—XIII centuries, etc.).
In the VI—XI centuries, the population of the Byzantine Empire was part of an ethnic group who later formed Italian nationality.
The official language of Byzantium in the IV VI centuries was Latin, from the VII century until the end of the empire's existence — Greek.
Most of the ruling elite were of Greek and Armenian origin.
Between the VI XI centuries, out of more than 50 emperors, about 30 (60 %) of the emperors were Armenians.
See also: List of Byzantine emperors of Armenian origin State structure[edit / edit wiki text]
By 395, Byzantium inherited from the Roman Empire a monarchical form of government with an emperor at the head.
Since the seventh century, the head of state was more often called the avtokrator (Greek: ΑτΤοκράτωρ autocrat) or the basileus (Greek: βασιλεὺς — letters. the tsar).
The Byzantine Empire consisted of two prefectures the East and Illyricum, each of which was headed by prefects: the Praetorian Prefect of the East (Latin Praefectus praetorio Orientis) and the Praetorian prefect Illyricus (Latin Praefectus praetorio Illyrici).
Constantinople was separated into a separate unit, headed by the prefect of the city of Constantinople (Latin Praefectus urbis Constantinopolitanae).
The previous system of state and financial management was maintained for a long time.
But since the end of the VI century, significant changes have been observed.
The reforms are mainly related to defense (administrative division into them instead of exarchates) and mainly Greek culture
Since the X century, feudal principles of governance have been widely spread, this process has led to the establishment of representatives of the feudal aristocracy on the throne.
Until the very end of the empire, numerous rebellions and the struggle for the imperial throne do not stop.
The two highest military officials were the commander in chief of the infantry (Lat. magister paeditum) and the chief of the cavalry (Lat. magister equitum), later these positions were merged (Magister militum); in the capital there were two masters of infantry and cavalry (Stratig Opsikia) (Lat.
Magistri equitum et paeditum in praesenti).
In addition, there was a master of infantry and cavalry of the East (Stratagus of Anatolica), a master of infantry and cavalry of Illyricum, a master of infantry and cavalry of Thrace (Stratagus of Thracia).
The Byzantine Emperors [edit | edit wiki text] Main articles: The Byzantine Emperor, The list of Byzantine Emperors After the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476), the Eastern Roman Empire continued to exist for almost a thousand years; in historiography, it is usually called Byzantium from that time on.
The ruling class of Byzantium is characterized by mobility[22].
At all times, a person from the bottom could make his way to power.
In some cases, it was even easier for him: for example, there was an opportunity to make a career in the army and earn military glory.
For example, Emperor Michael II was an uneducated mercenary, was sentenced to death by Emperor Leo V for rebellion, and his execution was postponed only because of the celebration of Christmas (820); Vasily I was a peasant, and then a horse breaker in the service of a noble nobleman.
Roman I Lakapin was also a native of the peasants, Michael IV, before becoming emperor, was a money changer, like one of his brothers[22].
The army [edit | edit wiki text] Main articles: The army of the Byzantine Empire, the Byzantine Navy Although Byzantium inherited its army from the Roman Empire, its structure approached the phalanx system of the Hellenic states.
By the end of the existence of Byzantium, it became mainly mercenary and was distinguished by a rather low combat capability.
The plan of the battle of Dara in 530 AD, in which foreign mercenaries, including the Huns, participated on the side of the Byzantine Empire.
The Battle of the Gift
Themes of the Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine lamellar armor clivanium (Κλιβάνιον) is a prototype of mirror armor, but a system of military management and supply was developed in detail, works on strategy and tactics are published, a variety of technical means are widely used, in particular, a system of beacons is built to notify of an enemy attack.
In contrast to the old Roman army, the importance of the fleet is greatly increasing, which the invention of the "Greek fire" helps to gain dominance in the sea.
Fully armored cavalry cataphractaries are adopted from the Sassanids.
At the same time, technically complex throwing weapons, ballistae and catapults disappear, replaced by simpler stone throwers.
The transition to a femal system of recruiting troops provided the country with 150 years of successful wars, but the financial exhaustion of the peasantry and its transition to dependence on the feudal lords led to a gradual decrease in combat capability.
The recruitment system was changed to a typically feudal one, when the nobility was obliged to supply military contingents for the right to own land.
In the future, the army and navy are falling into increasing decline, and at the very end of the empire's existence they are purely mercenary formations.
In 1453, Constantinople, with a population of 60 thousand inhabitants, was able to field only a 5 thousand army and 2.5 thousand mercenaries.
Since the X century, the Constantinople emperors hired technologically advanced and militarily strong southern and northern Rus, as well as warriors from neighboring barbarian Turkic tribes.
Since the X century, ethnically mixed Varangians have played a significant role in heavy infantry, and light cavalry was completed from Turkic nomads.
After the era of Viking campaigns came to an end at the beginning of the XI century, mercenaries from Scandinavia (as well as from Normandy and England conquered by the Vikings[23]) rushed to Byzantium across the Mediterranean Sea.
The future Norwegian king Harald the Harsh fought for several years in the Varangian guard throughout the Mediterranean.
The Varangian Guard bravely defended Constantinople from the Crusaders in 1204 and was defeated during the capture of the city.
Culture and society [edit | edit wiki text] The period of the reign of the emperors from Basil I the Macedonian to Alexios I Komnenos (867-1081) was of great cultural importance.
The essential features of this period of history are the high rise of Byzantinism and the spread of its cultural mission to southeastern Europe.
Thanks to the works of the famous Hellenists and Byzantines of Thessalonians Cyril and Methodius, the Slavic alphabet — Glagolitic appeared, which led to the emergence of their own written literature among the Slavs, connected with them by common roots of belonging to the Japhetids.
Patriarch Photius put obstacles to the claims of the popes of Rome and theoretically justified the primordial right of Constantinople to ecclesiastical independence from Rome (see Separation of Churches).
In the scientific sphere, this period is distinguished by an unusual fecundity and a variety of literary enterprises.
In the collections and treatments of this period, precious historical, literary and archaeological material has been preserved, borrowed from the now lost writers.
See also Byzantine Life.
Economy[edit / edit wiki text]
Byzantine bronze coins, the reign of Anastasius I, 498-518 The state included rich lands with a large number of cities — Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece.
At the initial stage of development, Byzantium was a super urbanized empire by medieval standards — 1.5 million people lived in the four largest cities of the Empire(Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria and Edessa).
In the cities, artisans and merchants were united into estates.
Belonging to the estate was not a duty, but a privilege, entry into it was provided with a number of conditions.
The conditions established by the eparch (mayor) for the 22 estates of Constantinople were summarized in the X century in the collection of resolutions of the Book of the Eparch[24].
Despite the corrupt system of government, very high taxes, slave owning economy and court intrigues, the economy of Byzantium was the strongest in Europe for a long time.
Trade was conducted with all the former Roman possessions in the west and with India (through the Sassanids and Arabs) in the east.
Even after the Arab conquests, the empire was very rich.
But the financial costs were also very high, and the country's wealth caused strong envy.
By the XIII century, the urban population was barely 100 thousand people, half of them in Constantinople.
The decline of trade caused by the privileges granted to Italian merchants, the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders and the onslaught of the Turks led to the final weakening of the finances and the state as a whole.
In the initial period of the state's history, the basis of the economy was production and the customs structure.
85-90 percent of production in all of Eurasia (with the exception of India and China) was accounted for by the Eastern Roman Empire.
Absolutely everything was done in the empire: from consumer products (oil lamps, weapons, armor, primitive elevators, mirrors, some other items related to cosmetics), which are now quite widely represented in all museums of the world, to unique works of art that are not represented at all in other areas of the world — iconography, painting, and so on.
Science, medicine, law [edit | edit wiki text] Main article: Medicine of Byzantium Byzantine science throughout the entire period of the existence of the state was in close connection with ancient philosophy and metaphysics.
The main activity of scientists was in the applied plane, where a number of remarkable successes were achieved, such as the construction of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople and the invention of Greek fire.
At the same time, pure science practically did not develop either in terms of creating new theories, or in terms of developing the ideas of ancient thinkers.
Starting from the era of Justinian and until the end of the first millennium, scientific knowledge was in severe decline[source not specified 1944 days], but later Byzantine scientists again showed themselves, especially in astronomy and mathematics, already relying on the achievements of Arabic and Persian science[source not specified 956 days].
Medicine was one of the few branches of knowledge in which progress was made compared to antiquity.
The influence of Byzantine medicine was felt both in the Arab countries and in Europe during the Renaissance.
In the last century of the empire's existence, Byzantium played an important role in the spread of ancient Greek literature in early Renaissance Italy.
By that time, the Academy of Trebizond had become the main center for the study of astronomy and mathematics.
The law [edit | edit wiki text] Main article: Byzantine Law The reforms of Justinian I in the field of law had a great impact on the development of jurisprudence.
With the adoption of Christianity, Byzantine criminal law was largely borrowed from Russia.
The significance of the Byzantine Empire[edit | edit wiki text] Byzantium created a brilliant culture, perhaps the most brilliant that the Middle Ages knew, undoubtedly the only one that existed in Christian Europe until the XI century.
Constantinople remained for many centuries the only great city of Christian Europe that did not know its equal in splendor.
With its literature and art, Byzantium exerted a significant influence on the peoples around it.
The monuments and majestic works of art that remain from it show us all the splendor of Byzantine culture.
Therefore, Byzantium occupied a significant and, I must say, a well deserved place in the history of the Middle Ages[25].
"The Greek Project"[edit | edit wiki text] Main article: The Greek project In the second half of the XVIII century in the Russian Empire of the time of Catherine II, there was a project for the revival of Byzantium, the so called "Greek Project".
The Russian Empire was then waging wars with the Ottoman Empire, and the plan provided, in the event of an unconditional victory over the Turks and the capture of Constantinople, the creation of a new "Byzantine Empire".
The emperor of this revived Byzantium was to be Konstantin Pavlovich, the grand Duke, the son of the heir of Pavel Petrovich (the future Paul I) and the grandson of Catherine.
Voltaire urged Catherine to reach Istanbul in the war with the Turks, to turn it back into Constantinople, to destroy Turkey, to save the Balkan Christians.
And he even gave practical advice: to use chariots in steppe battles against the Turks for greater similarity with the exploits of antiquity.
However, the capture of Constantinople did not happen, and the plan was subsequently forgotten.
