The Gemara (also transliterated Gemarah, or in Ashkenazi pronunciation Gemore;  from Aramaic , from the Hebrew verb gamar, to finish or complete) is the component of the Talmud comprising rabbinical analysis of and commentary on the Mishnah.
At first, Gemara was only spoken of in oral terms and was forbidden to be written down, however after the Mishnah was published by Judah the Prince (c. 200 CE), the work was studied exhaustively by generation after generation of rabbis in Babylonia and the Land of Israel.
Their discussions were written down in a series of books that became the Gemara, which when combined with the Mishnah constituted the Talmud.
There are two versions of the Gemara.
The Jerusalem Talmud (Talmud Yerushalmi) or Palestinian Talmud was compiled by Jewish scholars of the Land of Israel, primarily of the academies of Tiberias and Caesarea, and was published between about 350–400 CE.
The Talmud Bavli (Babylonian Talmud) was published about 500 CE by scholars of Babylonia, primarily of the academies of Sura, Pumbedita, and Nehardea.
By convention, a reference to the "Gemara" or "Talmud," without further qualification, refers to the Babylonian version.
The main compilers were Ravina and Rav Ashi.
There are six groups of Gemara, namely Zeraim, Moed, Nashim, Nezikin, Kodshim and Taharot.
There is a custom made in 1923 by Polish rabbi Meir Shapiro, who saw that there were parts of the Gemara that would never get read, so he started an initiative called Daf Yomi, where people learn a page of Gemara every day for seven years in order that the entire Gemara would be learned.
Gemara and Mishnah
The Gemara and the Mishnah together make up the Talmud.
The Talmud thus comprises two components: the Mishnah – the core text; and the Gemara – analysis and commentary which "completes" the Talmud (see Structure of the Talmud).
Maimonides describes the Gemara component as:
The rabbis of the Mishnah are known as Tannaim (sing. Tanna ).
The rabbis of the Gemara are referred to as Amoraim (sing. Amora אמורא).
The analysis of the Amoraim, recorded as gemara, is thus focused on clarifying the positions, views, and word choice of the Tannaim.
Because there are two Gemaras, as mentioned above, there are in fact two Talmuds: the Jerusalem Talmud (Hebrew: , "Talmud Yerushalmi"), and the Babylonian Talmud (Hebrew: , "Talmud Bavli"), corresponding to the Jerusalem Gemara and the Babylonian Gemara; both share the same Mishnah.
The Gemara is mostly written in Aramaic, the Jerusalem Gemara in Western Aramaic and the Babylonian in Eastern Aramaic, but both contain portions in Hebrew.
Sometimes the language changes in the middle of a story.
Origins of the word
In a narrow sense, the word  refers to the mastery and transmission of existing tradition, as opposed to , which means the deriving of new results by logic.
Both activities are represented in the  as a literary work.
The term  for the activity of study is far older than its use as a description of any text: thus Pirke Avot (Ch.5), a work long preceding the recording of the Talmud, recommends starting  at the age of 10 and  at the age of 15.
Homiletically, the word  (גמרא) spells out the first letters of the words Gabriel, Michael, Raphael and Uriel, the names of the angels that man is protected with when delving into Torah study.
The ''Sugya''
The analysis of the Amoraim is generally focused on clarifying the positions, words and views of the Tannaim.
These debates and exchanges form the "building-blocks" of the ; the name for such a passage of Gemara is a  (; plural ).
A  will typically comprise a detailed proof-based elaboration of the .
Every aspect of the  text is treated as a subject of close investigation.
This analysis is aimed at an exhaustive understanding of the  full meaning.
In the Talmud, a  is presented as a series of responsive hypotheses and questions – with the Talmudic text as a record of each step in the process of reasoning and derivation.
The  thus takes the form of a dialectical exchange (by contrast, the  states concluded legal opinions – and often differences in opinion between the Tannaim.
There is little dialogue).
The disputants here are termed the  (questioner, "one who raises a difficulty") and  (answerer, "one who puts straight").
The  records the semantic disagreements between Tannaim and Amoraim.
Some of these debates were actually conducted by the Amoraim, though many of them are hypothetically reconstructed by the Talmud's redactors.
(Often imputing a view to an earlier authority as to how he may have answered a question: "This is what Rabbi X could have argued ...")
Only rarely are debates formally closed.
Argumentation and debate
The distinctive character of the  derives largely from the intricate use of argumentation and debate, described above.
In each , either participant may cite scriptural,  and  proof to build a logical support for their respective opinions.
The process of deduction required to derive a conclusion from a prooftext is often logically complex and indirect.
"Confronted with a statement on any subject, the Talmudic student will proceed to raise a series of questions before he satisfies himself of having understood its full meaning."
This analysis is often described as "mathematical" in approach; Adin Steinsaltz makes the analogy of the Amoraim as scientists investigating the Halakha, where the Tanakh, Mishnah, Tosefta and midrash are the phenomena studied.
Prooftexts
Prooftexts quoted to corroborate or disprove the respective opinions and theories will include:
verses from the Tanakh: the exact language employed is regarded as significant;
other : cross-references to analogous cases, or to parallel reasoning by the  in question;
Beraitot (ברייתות) – uncodified  which are also sources of halakha (lit. outside material; sing.  ברייתא);
references to opinions and cases in the  (תוספתא);
references to the  ();
cross-references to other : again to analogous cases or logic.
Questions addressed
The actual debate will usually centre on the following categories: Language
Why does the  use one word rather than another?
If a statement is not clear enough, the  seeks to clarify the  intention.
Logic
Exploring the logical principles underlying the  statements, and showing how different understandings of the  reasons could lead to differences in their practical application.
What underlying principle is entailed in a statement of fact or in a specific instance brought as an illustration?
If a statement appears obvious, the  seeks the logical reason for its necessity.
It seeks to answer under which circumstances a statement is true, and what qualifications are permissible.
All statements are examined for internal consistency.
See: List of Talmudic principles and :Category:Talmud concepts and terminology Legal
Resolving contradictions, perceived or actual, between different statements in the , or between the  and other traditions; e.g., by stating that: two conflicting sources are dealing with differing circumstances; or that they represent the views of different rabbis.
Do certain authorities differ or not?
If they do, why do they differ?
If a principle is presented as a generalization, the  clarifies how much is included; if an exception, how much is excluded.
Biblical exposition
Demonstrating how the  rulings or disputes derive from interpretations of Biblical texts, the  will often ask where in the Torah the  derives a particular law.
See Talmudic hermeneutics and Oral Torah #The interplay of the Oral and Written Law.
See also
Hadran (Talmud)
List of masechtot, chapters, mishnahs and pages in the Talmud
Oral Torah
Yeshiva #Talmud study
Rabbinic works elaborating the analytical methods employed in :
- R. Aryeh Leib HaCohen Heller
and  - R.
Moshe Chaim Luzzatto
Mevo haTalmud - Shmuel HaNagid
Further reading
"Gemara", Jewish Encyclopedia
"Gemara", Prof. Eliezer Segal
"Maimonides introduction to the Mishneh Torah" English translation
"Mevo ha-Talmud", Samuel ha-Nagid
"Talmudic Method", Harry Austryn Wolfson
The Essential Talmud: Thirtieth Anniversary Edition, Adin Steinsaltz (Basic Books, 2006).
Read more here.
See also here.
The Talmud: A Reference Guide, Adin Steinsaltz (Random House, 1996).
Read more here.
Introduction to The Talmud and Midrash, H.L. Strack and G. Stemberger (Fortress Press, 1992).
The Infinite Chain: Torah, Masorah, and Man, Nathan T. Lopes Cardozo (Targum Press Distributed by Philipp Feldheim, 1989).
References
External links
Point by point summary and discussion of the Gemara
Gemara Marking System: Keys to Structure
Daf-A-Week: A project to study a daf per week
The Complete Babylonian Talmud (Aramaic/Hebrew) as scanned images of the pages.
The Complete Babylonian Talmud (Aramaic/Hebrew) as text. (Also available from other sites)
A printable chart with listings of all Dappim from each Mesechta
Gemara Brochos:"Shema, Tefillah and Brochos"
Daily Gemara by Rabbi Eli Mansour
Gemara Category:Aramaic words and phrases Category:Oral Torah Category:Aramaic words and phrases in Jewish prayers and blessings Category:Sifrei Kodesh
