The Bar Kokhba revolt (, Mereḏ Bar Kōḵḇāʾ‎), known by Romans as the 'Jewish Expedition'Horbury, W. (2014).
Hadrian and Pius.
In Jewish War under Trajan and Hadrian (pp. 278-428).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
doi:10.1017/CBO9781139049054.005 (), was a rebellion by the Jews of the Roman province of Judea, led by Simon bar Kokhba, against the Roman Empire.
Fought circa 132–136 CE,for the year 136, see: W. Eck, The Bar Kokhba Revolt: The Roman Point of View, pp.
87–88.
it was the last of three major Jewish–Roman wars, so it is also known as The Third Jewish–Roman War or, The Third Jewish Revolt.
Some historians also refer to it as the Second Revolt of Judea, not counting the Kitos War (115–117 CE), which had only marginally been fought in Judea.
The revolt erupted as a result of religious and political tensions in Judea following on the failed First Revolt in 66–73 CE.
These tensions were related to the establishment of a large Roman military presence in Judea, changes in administrative life and the economy, together with the outbreak and suppression of Jewish revolts from Mesopotamia to Libya and Cyrenaica.William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein,  The Cambridge History of Judaism: The late Roman-Rabbinic period, Cambridge University Press, 1984 pp.
106.
The proximate reasons seem to be  the construction of a new city, Aelia Capitolina, over the ruins of Jerusalem and the erection of a temple to Jupiter on the Temple Mount.
The Church Fathers and rabbinic literature emphasize the role of Rufus, governor of Judea, in provoking the revolt.William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein: The Cambridge History of Judaism: The late Roman-Rabbinic period, p. 35, Cambridge University Press, 1984,
In 132, the revolt led by Bar Kokhba quickly spread from central Judea across the province, cutting off the Roman garrison in Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem).
Quintus Tineius Rufus, the provincial governor at the time of the erupting uprising, was attributed with the failure to subdue its early phase.
Rufus is last recorded in 132, the first year of the rebellion; whether he died or was replaced is uncertain.
Despite arrival of significant Roman reinforcements from Syria, Egypt, and Arabia, initial rebel victories over the Romans established an independent state over most parts of Judea Province for over three years, as Simon bar Kokhba took the title of Nasi ("head of state").
As well as leading the revolt, he was regarded by many Jews as the Messiah, who would restore their national independence.
This setback, however, caused Emperor Hadrian to assemble a large-scale Roman force from across the Empire, which invaded Judea in 134 under the command of General Sextus Julius Severus.
The Roman army was made up of six full legions with auxiliaries and elements from up to six additional legions, which finally managed to crush the revolt.
The Bar Kokhba revolt resulted in the extensive depopulation of Judean communities, more so than during the First Jewish–Roman War of 70 CE.
According to Cassius Dio, 580,000 Jews perished in the war and many more died of hunger and disease, 50 fortresses and 985 villages were destroyed.
In addition, many Judean war captives were sold into slavery.Mor, M.
The Second Jewish Revolt: The Bar Kokhba War, 132-136 CE.
Brill, 2016.
P471/ Some modern historians assert that Dio's numbers were somewhat exaggerated,Powell, The Bar Kokhba War AD 132-136, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, ç2017, p.80 but other researchers support Dio's claim of massive depopulation.
The Jewish communities of Judea were devastated to an extent which some scholars describe as a genocide.Totten, S.
Teaching about genocide: issues, approaches and resources.
p24.
However, the Jewish population remained strong in other parts of Palestine, thriving in Galilee, Golan, Bet Shean Valley, and the eastern, southern, and western edges of Judea.David Goodblatt, 'The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel,' in William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein, Steven T. Katz (eds.)
The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period, Cambridge University Press, 2006 pp.404-430, p.406.
Roman casualties were also considered heavy – XXII Deiotariana was disbanded after serious losses.L. J. F. Keppie (2000) Legions and veterans: Roman army papers 1971-2000 Franz Steiner Verlag,  pp 228–229livius.org account(Legio XXII Deiotariana) In addition, some historians argue that Legio IX Hispana's disbandment in the mid-2nd century could have been a result of this war.
In an attempt to erase any memory of Judea or Ancient Israel, Emperor Hadrian wiped the name off the map and replaced it with Syria Palaestina.H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, , page 334: "In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature."
Ariel Lewin.
The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine.
Getty Publications, 2005 p.
33. "It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name - one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus - Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land."
The Bar Kokhba War Reconsidered by Peter Schäfer,  However, there is only circumstantial evidence linking Hadrian with the name change and the precise date is not certain.
: "While it is true that there is no evidence as to precisely who changed the name of Judaea to Palestine and precisely when this was done, circumstantial evidence would seem to point to Hadrian himself, since he is, it would seem, responsible for a number of decrees that sought to crush the national and religious spirit of the Jews, whether these decrees were responsible for the uprising or were the result of it.
In the first place, he refounded Jerusalem as a Graeco-Roman city under the name of Aelia Capitolina.
He also erected on the site of the Temple another temple to Zeus."
The common view is that the name change was intended to sever the connection of the Jews to their historical homeland - by naming the land after the bitter enemies of the Israelites and the Judeans - the Philistines of Pleshet (Plishtim from the Greek island of Crete - "Kaftor") and the Assyrians from Assyria (Ashurim from "Ashur") as mentioned countless times in the old testament; a few scholars dispute this.
The Bar Kokhba revolt greatly influenced the course of Jewish history and the philosophy of the Jewish religion.
Despite easing the persecution of Jews following Hadrian's death in 138 CE, the Romans barred Jews from Jerusalem, except for attendance in Tisha B'Av.
Jewish messianism was abstracted and spiritualized, and rabbinical political thought became deeply cautious and conservative.
The Talmud, for instance, refers to Bar Kokhba as "Ben-Kusiba", a derogatory term meaning "son of deception", used to indicate that he was a false Messiah.
It was also among the key events to differentiate Christianity as a religion distinct from Judaism.M. Avi-Yonah, The Jews under Roman and Byzantine Rule, Jerusalem 1984 p. 143 Although Jewish Christians regarded Jesus as the Messiah and did not support Bar Kokhba,Justin, "Apologia", ii.71, compare "Dial." cx; Eusebius "Hist.
Eccl." iv.6,§2; Orosius "Hist."
vii.13 they were barred from Jerusalem along with the other Jews.
Background
After the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), the Roman authorities took measures to suppress the rebellious province of Roman Judea.
Instead of a procurator, they installed a praetor as a governor and stationed an entire legion, the X Fretensis, in the area.
Tensions continued to build up in the wake of the Kitos War, the second large-scale Jewish insurrection in the Eastern Mediterranean during 115–117, the final stages of which saw fighting in Judea.
Mismanagement of the province during the early 2nd century might well have led to the proximate causes of the revolt, largely bringing governors with clear anti-Jewish sentiments to run the province.
Gargilius Antiques may have preceded Rufus during the 120s.
The Church Fathers and rabbinic literature emphasize the role of Rufus in provoking the revolt.
Historians have suggested multiple reasons for the sparking of the Bar Kokhba revolt, long-term and proximate.
Several elements are believed to have contributed to the rebellion; changes in administrative law, the diffuse presence of Romans, alterations in agricultural practice with a shift from landowning to sharecropping, the impact of a possible period of economic decline, and an upsurge of nationalism, the latter influenced by similar revolts among the Jewish communities in Egypt, Cyrenaica and Mesopotamia during the reign of Trajan in the Kitos War.
The proximate reasons seem to centre around the construction of a new city, Aelia Capitolina, over the ruins of Jerusalem and the erection of a temple to Jupiter on the Temple mount.
Until recently, some historians had tried to question the Colonia foundation event as one of the causes of the revolt, suggesting to rather time the Colonia establishment to the aftermath of the revolt as a punishment."
Jerusalem and the Bar Kokhba Revolt Again: A Note" by Eran Almagor, ELECTRUM Vol. 26 (2019): 141–157, http://www.ejournals.eu/electrum/2019/Volume-26/art/15133/ (abstract with link to full pdf article) which suggests Aelia Capitolina was founded during the last stage of the revolt which halted earlier reconstruction http://www.ejournals.eu/electrum/2019/Volume-26/art/15015/ and "Eusebius and Hadrian's Founding of Aelia Capitolina in Jerusalem" by Miriam Ben Zeev Hofman, ELECTRUM Vol. 26 (2019): 119–128 http://www.ejournals.eu/electrum/2019/Volume-26/art/15015/ However, the 2014 archaeological finding of the Legio Fretensis inscription in Jerusalem dedicated to Hadrian and dated to 129/130 CE, as well as identification of Colonia Aelia Capitolina struck coins have since been largely accepted as confirmation to the sequence of events depicted in Jewish traditional literature.
One interpretation involves the visit in 130 CE of Hadrian to the ruins of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem.
At first sympathetic towards the Jews, Hadrian promised to rebuild the Temple, but the Jews felt betrayed when they found out that he intended to build a temple dedicated to Jupiter upon the ruins of the Second Temple.
A rabbinic version of this story claims that Hadrian planned on rebuilding the Temple, but that a malevolent Samaritan convinced him not to.
The reference to a malevolent Samaritan is, however, a familiar device of Jewish literature.
An additional legion, the VI Ferrata, arrived in the province to maintain order.
Works on Aelia Capitolina, as Jerusalem was to be called, commenced in 131 CE.
The governor of Judea, Tineius Rufus, performed the foundation ceremony, which involved ploughing over the designated city limits.See   "Ploughing up the Temple",The Mishnah has a segment: "[O]n the 9th of Ab...and the city was ploughed up." on mas.
Taanith, Chapter 4, Mishnah no.
6. See: *  *  * The Babylonian Talmud and Jerusalem Talmud both explicate the segment refers to Rufus: Babylonian: mas.
Taanith 29a.
See *  *  * .
See notes on The Jerusalem Talmud relates it to the Temple, Taanith 25b: *  *  seen as a religious offence, turned many Jews against the Roman authorities.
The Romans issued a coin inscribed Aelia Capitolina.
A disputed tradition, based on the single source of the Historia Augusta, regarded as 'unreliable and problematic,'Benjamin H. Isaac, Aharon Oppenheimer, 'The Revolt of Bar Kochba:Ideology and Modern Scholarship,' in Benjamin H. Isaac,  The Near East Under Roman Rule: Selected Papers , BRILL (Volume 177 of Mnemosyne, bibliotheca classica Batava. 177: Supplementum), 1998 pp.220-252, 226-227Aharon Oppenheimer, 'The Ban on Circumcision as a cause of the Revolt: A Reconsideration,' in Peter Schäfer (ed.)
The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World: The Jews of Palestine from Alexander the Great to the Arab Conquest, Mohr Siebeck 2003 pp.55-69 pp.55f.
states tensions rose after Hadrian banned circumcision, referred to as mutilare genitalia Craig A. Evans, Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies, BRILL 2001 p.185:'moverunt ea tempestate et Iudaei bellum, quod vetabantur mutilare genitalia.'
Aharon Oppenheimer, ‘The Ban on Circumcision as a Cause of the Revolt: A Reconsideration,’ Aharon Oppenheimer, Between Rome and Babylon, Mohr Siebeck 2005 pp.243-254 pp.
taken to mean brit milah.
Were the claim true it has been conjectured that Hadrian, as a Hellenist, would have viewed circumcision as an undesirable form of mutilation.Christopher Mackay, Ancient Rome a Military and Political History Cambridge University Press 2007 p.230 The claim is often considered suspect.Peter Schäfer, The Bar Kokhba War Reconsidered: New Perspectives on the Second Jewish Revolt Against Rome, Mohr Siebeck 2003.
p.68Peter Schäfer, The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World: The Jews of Palestine from Alexander the Great to the Arab Conquest, Routledge, 2003 p. 146.
Timeline of events
First phase
Eruption of the revolt
Jewish leaders carefully planned the second revolt to avoid the numerous mistakes that had plagued the first First Jewish–Roman War sixty years earlier.
In 132, the revolt, led by Simon bar Kokhba and Elasar, quickly spread from Modi'in across the country, cutting off the Roman garrison in Jerusalem.
Although Rufus was in charge during the early phase of the uprising, he disappears from the record after 132 for unknown reasons.
Shortly after the eruption of the revolt, Bar Kokhba's rebels inflicted heavy casualties to Legio X Fretensis, based in Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem).
At that point, Legio VI Ferrata was sent to reinforce the Roman position from Legio base in Yizrael Valley, fielding altogether some 20,000 Roman troops, but was unable to subdue the rebels, who nearly conquered Jerusalem.
Stalemate and reinforcements
Given the continuing inability of Legio X and Legio VI to subdue the rebels, additional reinforcements were dispatched from neighbouring provinces.
Gaius Poblicius Marcellus, the Legate of Roman Syria, arrived commanding Legio III Gallica, while Titus Haterius Nepos, the governor of Roman Arabia, brought Legio III Cyrenaica.
Later on it is proposed by some historians that Legio XXII Deiotariana was sent from Arabia Petraea, but was ambushed and massacred on its way to Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem), and possibly disbanded as a result.
Legio II Traiana Fortis, previously stationed in Egypt, may have also arrived in Judea in this stage.
By that time the number of Roman troops in Judea stood at nearly 80,000 - a number still inferior to rebel forces, who were also better familiar with the terrain and occupied strong fortifications.
Many Jews from the diaspora made their way to Judea to join Bar Kokhba's forces from the beginning of the rebellion, with the Talmud recorded tradition that hard tests were imposed on recruits due to the inflated number of volunteers.
Some documents seem to indicate that many of those who enlisted in Bar Kokhba's forces could only speak Greek, and it is unclear whether these were Jews or non-Jews.
According to Rabbinic sources some 400,000 men were at the disposal of Bar Kokhba at the peak of the rebellion, though historians tend to more conservative numbers of 200,000.
Second phase
From guerilla warfare to open engagement
The outbreak and initial success of the rebellion took the Romans by surprise.
The rebels incorporated combined tactics to fight the Roman Army.
According to some historians, Bar Kokhba's army mostly practiced guerrilla warfare, inflicting heavy casualties.
This view is largely supported by Cassius Dio, who wrote that the revolt began with covert attacks in line with preparation of hideout systems, though after taking over the fortresses Bar Kokhba turned to direct engagement due to his superiority in numbers.
Only after several painful defeats in the field did the Romans decide to avoid open conflict and instead methodically besiege individual Judean cities.
Rebel Judean statehood
right|thumb|300px|Territory held by the rebels in blue.
Simon Bar Kokhba took the title Nasi Israel and ruled over an entity named Israel that was virtually independent for over two and a half years.
The Jewish sage Rabbi Akiva, who was the spiritual leader of the revolt, identified Simon Bar Kosiba as the Jewish messiah, and gave him the surname "Bar Kokhba" meaning "Son of a Star" in the Aramaic language, from the Star Prophecy verse from Numbers : "There shall come a star out of Jacob".
: There shall come a star out of Jacob, and a sceptre shall rise out of Israel, and shall smite the corners of Moab, and destroy all the children of Sheth.
The name Bar Kokhba does not appear in the Talmud but in ecclesiastical sources.
The era of the redemption of Israel was announced, contracts were signed and a large quantity of Bar Kokhba Revolt coinage was struck over foreign coins.
From open warfare to rebel defensive tactics
With the slowly advancing Roman army cutting supply lines, the rebels engaged in long-term defense.
The defense system of Judean towns and villages was based mainly on hideout caves, which were created in large numbers in almost every population center.
Many houses utilized underground hideouts, where Judean rebels hoped to withstand Roman superiority by the narrowness of the passages and even ambushes from underground.
The cave systems were often interconnected and used not only as hideouts for the rebels but also for storage and refuge for their families.Peter Schäfer.
The Bar Kokhba War reconsidered.
2003.
p184 Hideout systems were employed in the Judean hills, the Judean desert, northern Negev, and to some degree also in Galilee, Samaria and Jordan Valley.
As of July 2015 some 350 hideout systems have been mapped within the ruins of 140 Jewish villages.
Third phase
Julius Severus' campaign
Following a series of setbacks, Hadrian called his general Sextus Julius Severus from Britannia, and troops were brought from as far as the Danube.
In 133/4, Severus landed in Judea with a massive army, bringing three legions from Europe (including Legio X Gemina and possibly also Legio IX Hispana), cohorts of additional legions and between 30 and 50 auxiliary units.
He took the title of provincial governor and initiated a massive campaign to systematically subdue Judean rebel forces.
Severus' arrival almost doubled the number of Roman troops facing the rebels.
The size of the Roman army amassed against the rebels was much larger than that commanded by Titus sixty years earlier - nearly one third of the Roman army took part in the campaign against Bar Kokhba.
It is estimated that forces from at least 10 legions participated in Severus' campaign in Judea, including Legio X Fretensis, Legio VI Ferrata, Legio III Gallica, Legio III Cyrenaica, Legio II Traiana Fortis, Legio X Gemina, cohorts of Legio V Macedonica, cohorts of Legio XI Claudia, cohorts of Legio XII Fulminata and cohorts of Legio IV Flavia Felix, along with 30-50 auxiliary units, for a total force of 60,000–120,000 Roman soldiers facing Bar Kokhba's rebels.
It is plausible that Legio IX Hispana was among the legions Severus brought with him from Europe, and that its demise occurred during Severus' campaign, as its disappearance during the second century is often attributed to this war.
Battle of Tel Shalem (theory)
According to some views one of the crucial battles of the war took place near Tel Shalem in the Beit She'an valley, near what is now identified as the legionary camp of Legio VI Ferrata.
This theory was proposed by Werner Eck in 1999, as part of his general maximalist work which did put the Bar Kokhba revolt as a very prominent event on the course of the Roman Empire's history.Journal of Roman Archaeology , Volume 12 , 1999 , pp.
294 - 313 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1047759400018043 Next to the camp, archaeologists unearthed the remnants of a triumphal arch, which featured a dedication to Emperor Hadrian, which most likely refers to the defeat of Bar Kokhba's army.Mohr Siebek et al.
Edited by Peter Schäfer.
The Bar Kokhba War reconsidered.
2003.
P172.
Additional finds at Tel Shalem, including a bust of Emperor Hadrian, specifically link the site to the period.
The theory for a major decisive battle in Tel Shalem implies a significant extension of the area of the rebellion, with Werner Eck suggesting the war encompassed also northern Valleys together with Galilee.What Does Tel Shalem Have To Do with the Bar Kokhba Revolt?
Judean highlands and desert
Simon bar Kokhba declared Herodium as his secondary headquarters.
Its commander was Yeshua ben Galgula, likely Bar Kokhba's second or third line of command.
Archaeological evidence for the revolt was found all over the site, from the outside buildings to the water system under the mountain.
Inside the water system, supporting walls built by the rebels were discovered, and another system of caves was found.
Inside one of the caves, burned wood was found which was dated to the time of the revolt.
The fortress was besieged by the Romans in late 134 and was taken by the end of the year or early in 135.
Fourth phase
The last phase of the revolt is characterized by Bar Kokhba's loss of territorial control, with the exception of the surroundings of the Betar fortress, where he made his last stand against the Romans.
The Roman Army had meanwhile turned to eradicate smaller fortresses and hideout systems of captured villages, turning the conquest into a campaign of annihilation.
Siege of Betar
thumb|200px|Ruined walls of the Beitar fortress, the last stand of Bar Kokhba
After losing many of their strongholds, Bar Kokhba and the remnants of his army withdrew to the fortress of Betar, which subsequently came under siege in the summer of 135.
Legio V Macedonica and Legio XI Claudia are said to have taken part in the siege.Charles Clermont-Ganneau, Archaeological Researches in Palestine during the Years 1873-1874, London 1899, pp.
463-470 According to Jewish tradition, the fortress was breached and destroyed on the fast of Tisha B'av, the ninth day of the lunar month Av, a day of mourning for the destruction of the First and the Second Jewish Temple.
Rabbinical literature ascribes the defeat to Bar Kokhba killing his maternal uncle, Rabbi Elazar Hamudaʻi, after suspecting him of collaborating with the enemy, thereby forfeiting Divine protection.Jerusalem Talmud Ta'anit iv.
68d; Lamentations Rabbah ii.
2 The horrendous scene after the city's capture could be best described as a massacre.Jerusalem Talmud, Taanit 4:5 (24a); Midrash Rabba (Lamentations Rabba 2:5).
The Jerusalem Talmud relates that the number of dead in Betar was enormous, that the Romans "went on killing until their horses were submerged in blood to their nostrils."
Ta'anit 4:5 thumb|right|Roman Inscription found near Battir mentioning the 5th and 11th Roman Legions Final accords
According to a Rabbinic midrash, the Romans executed eight leading members of the Sanhedrin (The list of Ten Martyrs include two earlier Rabbis): R. Akiva; R. Hanania ben Teradion; the interpreter of the Sanhedrin, R. Huspith; R. Eliezer ben Shamua; R. Hanina ben Hakinai; R. Jeshbab the Scribe; R. Yehuda ben Dama; and R. Yehuda ben Baba.
The precise date of Akiva's execution is disputed, some suggesting to date it to the beginning of the revolt based on the Midrash, while others link it to final phases.
The Rabbinic account describes agonizing tortures: R. Akiva was flayed with iron combs, R. Ishmael had the skin of his head pulled off slowly, and R. Hanania was burned at a stake, with wet wool held by a Torah scroll wrapped around his body to prolong his death.Martyrs, The Ten Jewish Encyclopedia: "The fourth martyr was Hananiah ben Teradion, who was wrapped in a scroll of the Law and placed on a pyre of green brushwood; to prolong his agony, wet wool was placed on his chest."
Bar Kokhba's fate is not certain, with two alternative traditions in the Babylonian Talmud ascribing the death of Bar Kokhba either to a snake bite or other natural causes during the Roman siege or possibly killed on the orders of the Sanhedrin, as a false Messiah.
According to Lamentations Rabbah, the head of Bar Kokhba was presented to Emperor Hadrian after the Siege of Betar.
Following the Fall of Betar, the Roman forces went on a rampage of systematic killing, eliminating all remaining Jewish villages in the region and seeking out the refugees.
Legio III Cyrenaica was the main force to execute this last phase of the campaign.
Historians disagree on the duration of the Roman campaign following the fall of Betar.
While some claim further resistance was broken quickly, others argue that pockets of Jewish rebels continued to hide with their families into the winter months of late 135 and possibly even spring 136.
By early 136 however, it is clear that the revolt was defeated.Mohr Siebek et al.
Edited by Peter Schäfer.
The Bar Kokhba War reconsidered.
2003.
P160.
"Thus it is very likely that the revolt ended only in early 136."
Casualties
According to Cassius Dio, 580,000 Jews were killed in the overall operations, and 50 fortified towns and 985 villages were razed to the ground, with many more Jews dying of famine and disease.
In addition, many Judean war captives were sold into slavery.
The Jewish communities of Judea were devastated to an extent which some scholars describe as a genocide.
In 1981, Schäfer suggested that Dio exaggerated his numbers.
On the other hand, in 2003 Cotton considered Dio's figures highly plausible, in light of accurate Roman census declarations.Mohr Siebek et al.
Edited by Peter Schäfer.
The Bar Kokhba War reconsidered.
2003.
P142-3.
The ethno-archaeological comparison analysis by Dvir Raviv and Chaim Ben David, published in 2021, asserts of sufficient accuracy in Dio's depopulation claims as a "reliable account, which he based on contemporaneous documentation".
The revolt was led by the Judean Pharisees, with other Jewish and non-Jewish factions also playing a role.
Jewish communities of Galilee who sent militants to the revolt in Judea were largely spared total destruction, though they did suffer persecutions and massive executions.
Samaria partially supported the revolt, with evidence accumulating that notable numbers of Samaritan youths participated in Bar Kokhba's campaigns; though Roman wrath was directed at Samaritans, their cities were also largely spared from the total destruction unleashed on Judea.
Eusebius of Caesarea wrote that Jewish Christians were killed and suffered "all kinds of persecutions" at the hands of rebel Jews when they refused to help Bar Kokhba against the Roman troops.Bourgel, Jonathan, ″The Jewish-Christians in the storm of the Bar Kokhba Revolt″, in: From One Identity to Another: The Mother Church of Jerusalem Between the Two Jewish Revolts Against Rome (66-135/6 EC).
Paris: Éditions du Cerf, collection Judaïsme ancien et Christianisme primitive, (French), pp.
127-175.
The Greco-Roman population of the region also suffered severely during the early stage of the revolt, persecuted by Bar Kokhba's forces.
Cassius Dio also wrote: "Many Romans, moreover, perished in this war.
Therefore, Hadrian, in writing to the Senate, did not employ the opening phrase commonly affected by the emperors: 'If you and your children are in health, it is well; I and the army are in health.'
"Cassius Dio, Roman History Some argue that the exceptional number of preserved Roman veteran diplomas from the late 150s and 160 CE indicate an unprecedented conscription across the Roman Empire to replenish heavy losses within military legions and auxiliary units between 133 and 135, corresponding to the revolt.E. Werner.
The bar Kokhba Revolt: The Roman Point of View.
The Journal of Roman Studies Vol. 89 (1999), pp.
76-89.
As noted above, XXII Deiotariana was disbanded after serious losses.
In addition, some historians argue that Legio IX Hispana's disbandment in the mid-2nd century could have been a result of this war.
Previously it had generally been accepted that the Ninth disappeared around 108 CE, possibly suffering its demise in Britain, according to Mommsen; but archaeological findings in 2015 from Nijmegen, dated to 121 CE, contained the known inscriptions of two senior officers who were deputy commanders of the Ninth in 120 CE, and lived on for several decades to lead distinguished public careers.
It was concluded that the Legion was disbanded between 120 and 197 CE - either as a result of fighting the Bar Kokhba revolt, or in Cappadocia (161), or at the Danube (162).
Legio X Fretensis sustained heavy casualties during the revolt.
Aftermath
Immediate consequences
left|thumb|220px|Schematic reconstruction of the Arch of Hadrian in Tel Shalem, dedicated to the Emperor for defeating the Jewish revolt of 132-35
After the suppression of the revolt, Hadrian's proclamations sought to root out Jewish nationalism in Judea, which he saw as the cause of the repeated rebellions.
He prohibited Torah law and the Hebrew calendar, and executed Judaic scholars.
The sacred scrolls of Judaism were ceremonially burned at the large Temple complex for Jupiter which he built on the Temple Mount.
At this Temple, he installed two statues, one of Jupiter, another of himself.
In an attempt to erase any memory of Judea or Ancient Israel, he wiped the name off the map and replaced it with Syria Palaestina.
By destroying the association of Jews with Judea and forbidding the practice of the Jewish faith, Hadrian aimed to root out a nation that had inflicted heavy casualties on the Roman Empire.
Similarly, under the argument to ensure the prosperity of the newly founded Roman colonia of Aelia Capitolina, Jews were forbidden to enter, except on the day of Tisha B'Av.H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, page 334: "Jews were forbidden to live in the city and were allowed to visit it only once a year, on the Ninth of Ab, to mourn on the ruins of their holy Temple."
right|thumb|Expulsion of the Jews from Jerusalem during the reign of Hadrian.
A miniature from the 15th-century manuscript "Histoire des Empereurs".
Modern historians view the Bar Kokhba Revolt as having decisive historic importance.
They note that, unlike the aftermath of the First Jewish–Roman War chronicled by Josephus, the Jewish population of Judea was devastated after the Bar Kokhba Revolt, being killed, exiled, or sold into slavery, with so many captives auctioned at "Hadrian's Market" that the price of the Jews were as low as the price of a horse.Powell, The Bar Kokhba War AD 132-136, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, ç2017, p.81 Jewish religious and political authority was suppressed far more brutally than before.
The Jews suffered a serious blow in Jerusalem and its environs in Judea, but the Jewish communities thrived in the remaining regions of Palestine—e.g., Galilee, Bet Shean, Caesarea, Golan and along the edges of Judea.
Captives that were not sold as slaves were deported to Gaza, Egypt and elsewhere, greatly adding to the Jewish diaspora.
The massive destruction and death in the course of the revolt has led scholars such as Bernard Lewis to date the beginning of the Jewish diaspora from this date.
Hadrian's death in 138 CE marked a significant relief to the surviving Jewish communities.
Some of the Judean survivors resettled in Galilee, with some rabbinical families gathering in Sepphoris.Miller, 1984, p. 132 Rabbinic Judaism had already become a portable religion, centered on synagogues.
Judea would not be a center of Jewish religious, cultural, or political life again until the modern era, although Jews continued to sporadically populate it and important religious developments still took place there.
Galilee became an important center of Rabbinic Judaism, where the Jerusalem Talmud was compiled in the 4th-5th centuries CE.
In the aftermath of the defeat, the maintenance of Jewish settlement in Palestine became a major concern of the rabbinate.
The Sages endeavoured to halt Jewish dispersal, and even banned emigration from Palestine, branding those who settled outside its borders as idolaters.Willem F. Smelik, The Targum of Judges, BRILL 1995 p.434.
Later relations between the Jews and the Roman Empire
Relations between the Jews in the region and the Roman Empire continued to be complicated.
Constantine I allowed Jews to mourn their defeat and humiliation once a year on Tisha B'Av at the Western Wall.
In 351–352 CE, the Jews of Galilee launched yet another revolt, provoking heavy retribution.Bernard Lazare and Robert Wistrich, Antisemitism: Its History and Causes, University of Nebraska Press, 1995, I, pp.46-7.
The Gallus revolt came during the rising influence of early Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire, under the Constantinian dynasty.
In 355, however, the relations with the Roman rulers improved, upon the rise of Emperor Julian, the last of the Constantinian dynasty, who, unlike his predecessors, defied Christianity.
In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Sassanian Persia, he ordered the Jewish Temple rebuilt in his effort to foster religions other than Christianity.Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 23.1.2–3.
The failure to rebuild the Temple has mostly been ascribed to the dramatic Galilee earthquake of 363, and traditionally also to the Jews' ambivalence about the project.
Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire, though Christian historians of the time ascribed it to divine intervention.See "Julian and the Jews 361–363 CE" (Fordham University, The Jesuit University of New York) and "Julian the Apostate and the Holy Temple".
Julian's support of Judaism caused Jews to call him "Julian the Hellene".A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews, Avner Falk Julian's fatal wound in the Persian campaign put an end to Jewish aspirations, and Julian's successors embraced Christianity through the entirety of Byzantine rule of Jerusalem, preventing any Jewish claims.
In 438 CE, when the Empress Eudocia removed the ban on Jews' praying at the Temple site, the heads of the Community in Galilee issued a call "to the great and mighty people of the Jews" which began: "Know that the end of the exile of our people has come!"
However the Christian population of the city saw this as a threat to their primacy, and a riot erupted which chased Jews from the city.Avraham Yaari, Igrot Eretz Yisrael (Tel Aviv, 1943), p.
46.
During the 5th and the 6th centuries, a series of Samaritan revolts broke out across the Palaestina Prima province.
Especially violent were the third and the fourth revolts, which resulted in near annihilation of the Samaritan community.Shalev-Hurvitz, V.
Oxford University Press 2015.
p235 It is likely that the Samaritan revolt of 556 was joined by the Jewish community, which had also suffered brutal suppression of their religion under Emperor Justinian.Weinberger, p. 143Brewer, C.
2005.
p.127Evans, J.A.S. 2005.
"Jews and Samaritans"
In the belief of restoration to come, in the early 7th century the Jews made an alliance with the Persians, joining the Persian invasion of Palaestina Prima in 614 to overwhelm the Byzantine garrison, and gaining autonomous rule over Jerusalem.
However, their autonomy was brief: the Jewish leader was shortly assassinated during a Christian revolt and, though Jerusalem was reconquered by Persians and Jews within 3 weeks, it fell into anarchy.
With the subsequent withdrawal of Persian forces, Jews surrendered to the Byzantines in 625 CE or 628 CE, but were massacred by Christians in 629 CE, with the survivors fleeing to Egypt.
Byzantine control of the region was finally lost to Muslim Arab armies in 637 CE, when Umar ibn al-Khattab completed the conquest of Akko.
Legacy
The disastrous end of the revolt occasioned major changes in Jewish religious thought.
Jewish messianism was abstracted and spiritualized, and rabbinical political thought became deeply cautious and conservative.
The Talmud, for instance, refers to Bar Kokhba as "Ben-Kusiba," a derogatory term used to indicate that he was a false Messiah.
The deeply ambivalent rabbinical position regarding Messianism, as expressed most famously in Maimonides "Epistle to Yemen," would seem to have its origins in the attempt to deal with the trauma of a failed Messianic uprising.Wikisource: "Epistle to Yemen"
In the post-rabbinical era, the Bar Kokhba Revolt became a symbol of valiant national resistance.
The Zionist youth movement Betar took its name from Bar Kokhba's traditional last stronghold, and David Ben-Gurion, Israel's first prime minister, took his Hebrew last name from one of Bar Kokhba's generals.""
A popular children's song, included in the curriculum of Israeli kindergartens, has the refrain "Bar Kokhba was a Hero/He fought for Liberty," and its words describe Bar Kokhba as being captured and thrown into a lion's den, but managing to escape riding on the lion's back.The military and militarism in Israeli society by Edna Lomsky-Feder, Eyal Ben-Ari]."
Retrieved on September 3, 2010 Geographic extent of the revolt
Over the years, two schools formed in the analysis of the Revolt.
One of them is maximalists, who claim that the revolt spread through the entire Judea Province and beyond it into neighboring provinces.
The second one is that of the minimalists, who restrict the revolt to the area of the Judaean hills and immediate environs.M. Menahem.
WHAT DOES TEL SHALEM HAVE TO DO WITH THE BAR KOKHBA REVOLT?.
U-ty of Haifa / U-ty of Denver.
SCRIPTA JUDAICA CRACOVIENSIA.
Vol. 11 (2013) pp.
79–96.
Judea proper
It is generally accepted that the Bar Kokhba revolt encompassed all of Judea, namely the villages of the Judean hills, the Judean desert, and northern parts of the Negev desert.
It is not known whether the revolt spread outside of Judea.
Jerusalem
Until 1951, Bar Kokhba Revolt coinage was the sole archaeological evidence for dating the revolt.
These coins include references to "Year One of the redemption of Israel", "Year Two of the freedom of Israel", and "For the freedom of Jerusalem".
Despite the reference to Jerusalem, as of early 2000s, archaeological finds, and the lack of revolt coinage found in Jerusalem, supported the view that the revolt did not capture Jerusalem.: "Returning to the Bar Kokhba revolt, we should note that up until the discovery of the first Bar Kokhba documents in Wadi Murabba'at in 1951, Bar Kokhba coins were the sole archaeological evidence available for dating the revolt.
Based on coins overstock by the Bar Kokhba administration, scholars dated the beginning of the Bar Kokhba regime to the conquest of Jerusalem by the rebels.
The coins in question bear the following inscriptions: "Year One of the redemption of Israel", "Year Two of the freedom of Israel", and "For the freedom of Jerusalem".
Up until 1948 some scholars argued that the "Freedom of Jerusalem" coins predated the others, based upon their assumption that the dating of the Bar Kokhba regime began with the rebel capture Jerusalem."
L. Mildenberg's study of the dies of the Bar Kokhba definitely established that the "Freedom of Jerusalem" coins were struck later than the ones inscribed "Year Two of the freedom of Israel".
He dated them to the third year of the revolt.'
Thus, the view that the dating of the Bar Kokhba regime began with the conquest of Jerusalem is untenable.
lndeed, archeological finds from the past quarter-century, and the absence of Bar Kokhba coins in Jerusalem in particular, support the view that the rebels failed to take Jerusalem at all."
In 2020, the fourth Bar Kokhba minted coin and the first inscribed with the word "Jerusalem" was found in Jerusalem Old City excavations.
Despite this discovery, the Israel Antiques Authority still maintained the opinion that Jerusalem was not taken by the rebels, due to the fact that of thousands of Bar Kokhba coins had been found outside Jerusalem, but only four within the city (out of more than 22,000 found within the city).
The Israel Antiques Authority's archaeologists Moran Hagbi and Dr. Joe Uziel speculated that "It is possible that a Roman soldier from the Tenth Legion found the coin during one of the battles across the country and brought it to their camp in Jerusalem as a souvenir."
Galilee
Among those findings are the rebel hideout systems in the Galilee, which greatly resemble the Bar Kokhba hideouts in Judea, and though are less numerous, are nevertheless important.
The fact that Galilee retained its Jewish character after the end of the revolt has been taken as an indication by some that either the revolt was never joined by Galilee or that the rebellion was crushed relatively early there compared to Judea.
Northern valleys
Several historians, notably W. Eck of the U-ty of Cologne, theorized that the Tel Shalem arch depicted a major battle between Roman armies and Bar Kokhba's rebels in Bet Shean valley, thus extending the battle areas some 50 km northwards from Judea.
The 2013 discovery of the military camp of Legio VI Ferrata near Tel Megiddo, and ongoing excavations there may shed light to extension of the rebellion to the northern valleys.
However, Eck's theory on battle in Tel Shalem is rejected by M. Mor, who considers the location unplausible given Galilee's minimal (if any) participation in the Revolt and distance from main conflict flareup in Judea proper.
Samaria
A 2015 archaeological survey in Samaria identified some 40 hideout cave systems from the period, some containing Bar Kokhba's minted coins, suggesting that the war raged in Samaria at high intensity.
NRG.
15 July 2015.
Transjordan
Bowersock suggested of linking the Nabateans to the revolt, claiming "a greater spread of hostilities than had formerly been thought... the extension of the Jewish revolt into northern Transjordan and an additional reason to consider the spread of local support among Safaitic tribes and even at Gerasa."
Sources
The revolt is mostly still shrouded in mystery, and only one brief historical account of the rebellion survives.Hanan Eshel, 'The Bar Kochba revolt, 132-135,' in William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein, Steven T. Katz (eds.)
The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period, pp.105-127, p.105.
Dio Cassius
The best recognized source for the revolt is Cassius Dio, Roman History (book 69),Mordechai, Gihon.
New insight into the Bar Kokhba War and a reappraisal of Dio Cassius 69.12-13.
University of Pennsylvania Press.
The Jewish Quarterly Review Vol. 77, No. 1 (Jul., 1986), pp.
15-43.
even though the writings of the Roman historian concerning the Bar Kokhba revolt survived only as fragments.
The account extends on about two pages and is largely an historical perspective with the general course of the rebellion and its disastrous results, without mentioning specific names and locations.
Notably, the name of the Jewish leader doesn't even appear in this account.
Eusebius of Caesarea
The Christian author Eusebius of Caesarea wrote a brief account of the revolt within the Church History (Eusebius) compilation, notably mentioning Bar Chochebas (which means “star” according to Eusebius) as the leader of the Jewish rebels and their last stand at Beththera (i.e. Betar).
Though Eusebius lived one and a half centuries after the revolt and wrote the brief account from the Christian theological perspective, his account provides important details on the revolt and its aftermath in Judea.
Eusebius does also describe what had remained of Jewish population of Judea at his time - naming seven Jewish communities in Roman Palaestina (former Judaea).
Jerusalem Talmud
The Jerusalem Talmud contains descriptions of the results of the rebellion, including the Roman executions of Judean leaders and religious persecution.
The material however is lacking context and detail, though does contain reference to the Roman Governor Rufus (as Tinusrufus) and names the Jewish leader as Ben Kuziba.
Primary sources
The discovery of the Cave of Letters in the Dead Sea area, dubbed as "Bar Kokhba archive",Peter Schäfer.
The Bar Kokhba War reconsidered.
2003.
p184.
which contained letters actually written by Bar Kokhba and his followers, has added much new primary source data, indicating among other things that either a pronounced part of the Jewish population spoke only Greek or there was a foreign contingent among Bar Kokhba's forces, accounted for by the fact that his military correspondence was, in part, conducted in Greek.Mordechai Gichon,  'New Insight into the Bar Kokhba War and a Reappraisal of Dio Cassius 69.12-13,' The Jewish Quarterly Review, Vol. 77, No. 1 (Jul., 1986), pp.
15-43, p.40.
Close to the Cave of Letters is the Cave of Horror, where the remains of Jewish refugees from the rebellion were discovered along with fragments of letters and writings.
Several more brief sources have been uncovered in the area over the past century, including references to the revolt from Nabatea and Roman Syria.
Roman inscriptions in Tel Shalem, Betar fortress, Jerusalem and other locations also contribute to the current historical understanding of the Bar Kokhba War.
Archaeology
Destroyed Jewish villages and fortresses
Several archaeological surveys have been performed during the 20th and 21st centuries in ruins of Jewish villages across Judea and Samaria, as well in the Roman-dominated cities on the Israeli coastal plain.
Herodium fortress
Herodium was excavated by archaeologist Ehud Netzer in the 1980s, publishing results in 1985.
According to findings, during the later Bar-Kokhba revolt, complex tunnels were dug, connecting the earlier cisterns with one another.Netzer E. and Arzi S., 1985.
“Herodium Tunnels”, Qadmoniot 18, Pp.
33–38. (in Hebrew)
These led from the Herodium fortress to hidden openings, which allowed surprise attacks on Roman units besieging the hill.
As opposed to the narrow and restricted tunnel complexes from the Judean plain, the Herodium tunnels were broad, with high ceilings, allowing for rapid movement of armed soldiers.
Betar fortress
The ruins of Betar, the last fortress of Bar Kokhba, destroyed by Hadrian's legions in 135 CE, is located in the vicinity of the towns of Battir and Beitar Illit.
A stone inscription bearing Latin characters and discovered near Betar shows that the Fifth Macedonian Legion and the Eleventh Claudian Legion took part in the siege.C. Clermont-Ganneau, Archaeological Researches in Palestine during the Years 1873-74, London 1899, pp.
263-270.
Hideout systems
Cave of Letters
The Cave of Letters was surveyed in explorations conducted in 1960–61, when letters and fragments of papyri were found dating back to the period of the Bar Kokhba revolt.
Some of these were personal letters between Bar Kokhba and his subordinates, and one notable bundle of papyri, known as the Babata or Babatha cache, revealed the life and trials of a woman, Babata, who lived during this period.
Cave of Horror
Cave of Horror is the name given to Cave 8 in the Judaean Desert of Israel, where the remains of Jewish refugees from the Bar Kokhba revolt were found.
The nickname "Cave of Horror" was given after the skeletons of 40 men, women and children were discovered.
Three potsherds with the names of three of the deceased were also found alongside the skeletons in the cave.
Roman legionary camps
A number of locations have been identified with Roman Legionary camps in the time of the Bar Kokhba War, including in Tel Shalem, Jerusalem, Lajjun and more.
Jerusalem inscription dedicated to Hadrian (129/30 CE)
In 2014, one half of a Latin inscription was discovered in Jerusalem during excavations near the Damascus Gate.Jerusalem Post.
21 October 2014 WATCH: 2,000-YEAR-OLD INSCRIPTION DEDICATED TO ROMAN EMPEROR UNVEILED IN JERUSALEM It was identified as the right half of a complete inscription, the other part of which was discovered nearby in the late 19th century and is currently on display in the courtyard of Jerusalem's Studium Biblicum Franciscanum Museum.
The complete inscription was translated as follows:
To the Imperator Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus, son of the deified Traianus Parthicus, grandson of the deified Nerva, high priest, invested with tribunician power for the 14th time, consul for the third time, father of the country (dedicated by) the 10th legion Fretensis Antoniniana.
The inscription was dedicated by Legio X Fretensis to the emperor Hadrian in the year 129/130 CE.
The inscription is considered to greatly strengthen the claim that indeed the emperor visited Jerusalem that year, supporting the traditional claim that Hadrian's visit was among the main causes of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, and not the other way around.
Tel Shalem triumphal arc and Hadrian's statue
The location was identified as a Roman military post during the 20th century, with archaeological excavation performed in the late 20th century following an accidental discovery of Hadrian's bronze statue in the vicinity of the site in 1975.
Remains of a large Roman military camp and fragments of a triumphal arc dedicated to Emperor Hadrian were consequently discovered at the site.
See also
List of conflicts in the Near East
Sicaricon (Jewish law)
References
Bibliography
Yohannan Aharoni & Michael Avi-Yonah, The MacMillan Bible Atlas, Revised Edition, pp.
164–65 (1968 & 1977 by Carta Ltd.)
The Documents from the Bar Kokhba Period in the Cave of Letters (Judean Desert studies).
Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1963–2002.
Vol. 2, "Greek Papyri", edited by Naphtali Lewis; "Aramaic and Nabatean Signatures and Subscriptions", edited by Yigael Yadin and Jonas C. Greenfield.
().
Vol. 3, "Hebrew, Aramaic and Nabatean–Aramaic Papyri", edited Yigael Yadin, Jonas C. Greenfield, Ada Yardeni, BaruchA.
Levine ().
W. Eck, 'The Bar Kokhba Revolt: the Roman point of view' in the Journal of Roman Studies 89 (1999) 76ff.
Peter Schäfer (editor), Bar Kokhba reconsidered, Tübingen: Mohr: 2003
Aharon Oppenheimer, 'The Ban of Circumcision as a Cause of the Revolt: A Reconsideration', in Bar Kokhba reconsidered, Peter Schäfer (editor), Tübingen: Mohr: 2003
Faulkner, Neil.
Apocalypse: The Great Jewish Revolt Against Rome.
Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK: Tempus Publishing, 2004 (hardcover, ).
Goodman, Martin.
The Ruling Class of Judaea: The Origins of the Jewish Revolt against Rome, A.D. 66–70.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987 (hardcover, ); 1993 (paperback, ).
Richard Marks: The Image of Bar Kokhba in Traditional Jewish Literature: False Messiah and National Hero: University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press: 1994:
David Ussishkin: "Archaeological Soundings at Betar, Bar-Kochba's Last Stronghold", in: Tel Aviv.
Journal of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 20 (1993) 66ff.
Yadin, Yigael.
Bar-Kokhba: The Rediscovery of the Legendary Hero of the Second Jewish Revolt Against Rome.
New York: Random House, 1971 (hardcover, ); London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1971 (hardcover, ).
Mildenberg, Leo.
The Coinage of the Bar Kokhba War.
Switzerland: Schweizerische Numismatische Gesellschaft, Zurich, 1984 (hardcover, ).
External links
Wars between the Jews and Romans: Simon ben Kosiba (130-136 CE), with English translations of sources.
Photographs from Yadin's book Bar Kokhba
Archaeologists find tunnels from Jewish revolt against Romans by the Associated Press.
Haaretz March 13, 2006
Bar Kokba and Bar Kokba War Jewish Encyclopedia
Sam Aronow - The Bar Kochba Revolt | 132 - 136
Category:132 Category:133 Category:134 Category:135 Category:136 Category:130s in the Roman Empire
