The geography of Antarctica is dominated by its south polar location and, thus, by ice.
The Antarctic continent, located in the Earth's southern hemisphere, is centered asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle.
It is washed by the Southern (or Antarctic) Ocean or, depending on definition, the southern Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans.
It has an area of more than 14 million km2.
Some 98% of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, the world's largest ice sheet and also its largest reservoir of fresh water.
Averaging at least 1.6 km thick, the ice is so massive that it has depressed the continental bedrock in some areas more than 2.5 km below sea level; subglacial lakes of liquid water also occur (e.g., Lake Vostok).
Ice shelves and rises populate the ice sheet on the periphery.
In September 2018, researchers at the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency released a high resolution terrain map (detail down to the size of a car, and less in some areas) of Antarctica, named the "Reference Elevation Model of Antarctica" (REMA).
Regions
thumb|Antarctica without its ice cover.
This map does not consider that sea level would rise because of the melted ice, nor that the landmass would rise by several hundred meters over a few tens of thousands of years after the weight of the ice was no longer depressing the landmass.
thumb|left|The Princesses Astrid and Ragnhild Coasts thumb|left|The Banzare, Sabrina, and Budd Law Dome Coasts Physically, Antarctica is divided in two by Transantarctic Mountains close to the neck between the Ross Sea and the Weddell Sea.
Western Antarctica and Eastern Antarctica correspond roughly to the eastern and western hemispheres relative to the Greenwich meridian.
This usage has been regarded as Eurocentric by some, and the alternative terms Lesser Antarctica and Greater Antarctica (respectively) are sometimes preferred.
Lesser Antarctica is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet.
There has been some concern about this ice sheet, because there is a small chance that it will collapse.
If it does, ocean levels would rise by a few metres in a very short period of time.
Volcanoes
Volcanoes that occur underneath glacial ice sheets are known by the term "Glaciovolcanism", or subglacial volcanoes.
An article published in 2017 claims that researchers from Edinburgh University recently discovered 91 new volcanoes below the Antarctic ice sheet, adding to the 47 volcanoes that were already known.
As of today, there have been 138 possible volcanoes identified in West Antarctica.van Wyk de Vries, M., Bingham, R. G. & Hein, A. S.
A new volcanic province: an inventory of subglacial volcanoes in West Antarctica.
Geol.
Soc.
Lond.
Spec.
Publ.
461 (2017).
There is limited knowledge about West Antarctic Volcanoes due to the presence of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, which heavily covers the West Antarctic Rift System -- a likely hub for volcanic activity.
Researchers find it difficult to properly identify volcanic activity due to the comprehensive ice covering.
East Antarctica is significantly larger than West Antarctica, and similarly remains widely unexplored in terms of its volcanic potential.
While there are some indications that there is volcanic activity under the East Antarctic Ice Sheet, there is not a significant amount of present information on the subject.
Mount Erebus is one of the most notable sites in the study of Antarctic Volcanism, in that it is the southernmost historically active volcanic site on the planet.
Deception Island is another active Antarctic volcano.
It is one of the most protected areas in the Antarctic, given its situation between the South Shetland Islands and the Antarctic Peninsula.
As the most active volcano in the Antarctic peninsula, it has been studied closely since its initial discovery in 1820.
There are four volcanoes on the mainland of Antarctica that are considered to be active on the basis of observed fumarolic activity or  "recent" tephra deposits:  Mount Melbourne (2,730 m) (74°21'S., 164°42'E.), a stratovolcano;  Mount Berlin (3,500 m) (76°03'S., 135°52'W.), a stratovolcano;  Mount Kauffman (2,365 m) (75°37'S., 132°25'W.), a stratovolcano; and  Mount Hampton (3,325 m) (76°29'S., 125°48'W.), a volcanic caldera.
Mount Rittmann (2,600 m) (73.45°S 165.5° E), a volcanic caldera.
Several volcanoes on offshore islands have records of historic activity.
Mount Erebus (3,795 m), a stratovolcano on Ross Island with 10 known eruptions and 1 suspected eruption.
On the opposite side of the continent,  Deception Island (62°57'S., 60°38'W.), a volcanic caldera with 10 known and 4 suspected eruptions, have been the most active.
Buckle Island in the Balleny Islands (66°50'S., 163°12'E.),  Penguin Island (62°06'S., 57°54'W.),  Paulet Island (63°35'S., 55°47'W.), and  Lindenberg Island (64°55'S., 59°40'W.) are also  considered to be active.
In 2017, the researchers of Edinburgh University discovered 91 underwater volcanoes under West Antarctica. [[Glaciovolcanism]]
The definition of Glaciovolcanism is “the interactions of magma with ice in all its forms, including snow, firn and any meltwater.”
Smellie, 2000.
Subglacial eruptions.
In: Sigurdsson, H. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Volcanoes.
Academic Press, San Diego, pp.
403-418.
Smellie, 2006.
The relative importance of supraglacial versus subglacial meltwater escape in basaltic subglacial tuya eruptions: an important unresolved conundrum.
Earth-Science Reviews, 74, 241-268.
It defines a special field of volcanic that is specifically centered around ice and ice melt.
This field of science is less than 100 years old, and thus continuously makes new discoveries.
Glaciovolcanism is characterized by three kinds of eruptions: sub-glacial eruptions, supraglacial volcanism, and ice-marginal volcanism.
The study of glaciovolcanism is vital to the understanding of ice sheet formation.
It is also a valuable tool to predict volcanic hazards, such as the ash hazard following the Eyjafjallajökull eruption in Iceland.
Marie Byrd Land
The Marie Byrd Land is an incredibly large portion of West Antarctica, consisting of the Area below the Antarctic Peninsula.
The Marie Byrd land is a large formation of volcanic rock, characterized by 18 exposed and subglacial volcanoes.
16 of the 18 volcanoes are entirely covered by the antarctic ice sheet.Winberry, J. P. & Anandakrishnan, S. Crustal structure of the West Antarctic rift system and Marie Byrd Land hotspot.
Geology 32, 977–980 (2004).
There have been no eruptions recorded from any of the volcanoes in this area, however scientists believe that some of the volcanoes may be potentially active.
Activity
Scientists and researchers debate whether or not the 138 identified possible volcanoes are active or dormant.
It is very hard to definitively say, given that many of these volcanic structures are buried underneath several kilometers of ice.LeMasurier, W. E. Neogene extension and basin deepening in the West Antarctic rift inferred from comparisons with the East African rift and other analogs.
Geology 36, 247–250 (2008).
However, ash layers within the West Antarctic Ice Sheet,Iverson, N. A. et al.
The first physical evidence of subglacial volcanism under the West Antarctic Ice Sheet.
Sci. Rep. 7, 11457 (2017).
as well as deformations in the ice surfaceBehrendt, J. C., Finn, C. A., Blankenship, D. D. & Bell, R. E. Aeromagnetic evidence for a volcanic caldera complex beneath the divide of the West Antarctic ice sheet.
Geophys.
Res.
Lett. 25, 4385–4388 (1998).
indicate that the West Antarctic Rift System could be active and contain erupting volcanoes.
Additionally, seismic activity in the region hints at magma movement beneath the crust, a sign of volcanic activity.Winberry, J. P. & Anandakrishnan, S. Crustal structure of the West Antarctic rift system and Marie Byrd Land hotspot.
Geology 32, 977–980 (2004).
Despite this, however, there is not yet definitive evidence of presently active volcanoes.
Subglacial volcanism is often characterized by ice melt and subglacial water.King, E. C., Woodward, J. & Smith, A. M. Seismic evidence for a water-filled canal in deforming till beneath Rutford Ice Stream, West Antarctica.
Geophys.
Lett.
31 (2004).
Though there are other sources of subglacial water, such as geothermal heat, it almost always is a condition of volcanism.
Scientists remain uncertain about the presence of water underneath the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, with some claiming to have found evidence indicating the existence.
Conditions of Formation
In West Antarctica's Marie Byrd Land, volcanoes are typically composed of alkaline and basaltic lava.
Sometimes, the volcanoes are entirely basaltic in composition.
Due to the geographic similarity of the Marie Byrd Land, it is believed that the volcanoes in the West African Rift System are also composed of basalt.
Above-ice basaltic volcanoes, also known as subaerial basaltic volcanoes, generally form in tall, broad cone shapes.
Since they are formed from repeated piling of liquid magma sourced from the center, they spread widely and grow upwards relatively slowly.
However, West Antarctic Volcanoes form underneath ice sheets, and are thus categorized as subglacial volcanoes.
Subglacial volcanoes that are monogenetic are far more narrow, steeper, flat topped structures.
Polygenetic subglacial volcanoes have a wider variety of shapes and sizes due to being made up of many different eruptions.
Often, they look more cone shaped, like stratovolcanoes.
Hazards
Hazardous ash
Little has been studied about the implications of volcanic ash from eruptions within the Antarctic Circle.
It is likely that an eruption at lower latitudes would cause global health and aviation hazards due to ash disbursement.
The clockwise air circulation around the low pressure system at the South Pole forces air upwards, hypothetically sending ash upwards towards the Stratospheric jet streams, and thus quickly dispersing it throughout the globe.
Melting ice
Recently, in 2017, a study found evidence of subglacial volcanic activity within the West Antarctic Ice Sheet.
This activity poses a threat to the stability of the Ice Sheet, as volcanic activity leads to increased melting.
This could possibly plunge the West Antarctic Ice Sheet into a positive feedback loop of rising temperatures and increased melting.
Canyons
There are three vast canyons that run for hundreds of kilometers, cutting through tall mountains.
None of the canyons are visible at the snow-covered surface of the continent since they are buried under hundreds of meters of ice.
The largest of the canyons is called Foundation Trough and is over 350km long and 35km wide.
The Patuxent Trough is more than 300km long and over 15km wide, while the Offset Rift Basin is 150km long and 30km wide.
These three troughs all lie under and cross the so-called "ice divide" - the high ice ridge that runs all the way from the South Pole out towards the coast of West Antarctica.
West Antarctica
thumb|400px|West Antarctica on the left.
West Antarctica is the smaller part of the continent, (50° – 180°W), divided into: Areas
Antarctic Peninsula (55° – 75°W)
Graham Land
Palmer Land
Queen Elizabeth Land (20°W – 80°W)
Ellsworth Land (79°45' – 103°24'W)
English Coast
Bryan Coast
Eights Coast
Marie Byrd Land (103°24' – 158°W)
Walgreen Coast
Bakutis Coast
Hobbs Coast
Ruppert Coast
Saunders Coast
King Edward VII Land (166°E – 155°W)
Shirase Coast
Seas
Scotia Sea (26°30' – 65°W)
Weddell Sea (57°18' – 102°20'W)
Bellingshausen Sea (57°18' – 102°20'W)
Amundsen Sea (102°20′ – 126°W)
Ice shelves
Larger ice shelves are:
Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf (30° – 83°W)
Larsen Ice Shelf
Abbot Ice Shelf (89°35' – 103°W)
Getz Ice Shelf (114°30' – 136°W)
Sulzberger Ice Shelf
Ross Ice Shelf (166°E – 155°W)
For all ice shelves see List of Antarctic ice shelves.
Islands
For a list of all Antarctic islands see List of Antarctic and sub-Antarctic islands.
East Antarctica
thumb|400px|East Antarctica on the right.
East Antarctica is the larger part of the continent, (50°W – 180°E), both the South Magnetic Pole and geographic South Pole are situated here.
Divided into: Areas
Coats Land (20° – 36°W)
Queen Maud Land (20°W – 45°E)
Princess Martha Coast
Princess Astrid Coast
Princess Ragnhild Coast
Prince Harald Coast
Prince Olav Coast
Enderby Land (44°38' – 56°25'E)
Kemp Land (56°25' – 59°34'E)
Mac.
Robertson Land (59°34' – 73°E)
Princess Elizabeth Land (73° – 87°43'E)
Wilhelm II Land (87°43' – 91°54'E)
Queen Mary Land (91°54' – 100°30'E)
Wilkes Land (100°31' – 136°11'E)
Adélie Land (136°11′ – 142°02′E)
George V Land (142°02' – 153°45'E)
George V Coast
Zélée Subglacial Trench
Oates Land (153°45' – 160°E)
Victoria Land (70°30' – 78°'S)
Seas
Weddell Sea (57°18' – 102°20'W)
King Haakon VII Sea (20°W – 45°E)
Davis Sea (82° – 96°E)
Mawson Sea (95°45' – 113°E)
D'Urville Sea (140°E)
Ross Sea (166°E – 155°W)
Bellingshausen Sea (57°18' – 102°20'W)
Scotia Sea (26°30' – 65°W)
Ice shelves
Larger ice shelves are:
Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf
Ekstrom Ice Shelf
Amery Ice Shelf
West Ice Shelf
Shackleton Ice Shelf
Voyeykov Ice Shelf
For all ice shelves see List of Antarctic ice shelves.
Islands
For a list of all Antarctic islands see List of Antarctic and sub-Antarctic islands.
Research stations
Territorial landclaims
Seven nations have made official Territorial claims in Antarctica.
Dependences and territories
Bouvet Island
French Southern and Antarctic Lands
Heard and McDonald Islands
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Peter I Island
See also
List of Antarctic and Subantarctic islands
Geology of Antarctica
References
General references
Ivanov, L. General Geography and History of Livingston Island.
In: Bulgarian Antarctic Research: A Synthesis.
Eds.
C. Pimpirev and N. Chipev.
Sofia: St. Kliment Ohridski University Press, 2015.
pp.
17–28.
External links
High resolution map (2018) – Reference Elevation Model of Antarctica (REMA)
Political Claims Map
USGS TerraWeb: Satellite Image Map of Antarctica
United States Antarctic Resource Center (USARC)
BEDMAP
Antarctic Digital Database (Topographic data for Antarctica, including web map browser)
Landsat Image Mosaic of Antarctica (LIMA; USGS web pages)
Landsat Image Mosaic of Antarctica (LIMA; NASA web pages)
Geography of the land under the ice of Antarctica:
http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/nasa-map-shows-what-antarctica-would-look-like-without-ice-1.1304997
https://www.bas.ac.uk/project/bedmap-2/
https://www.bas.ac.uk/data/our-data/maps/thematic-maps/bedmap2/
https://www.the-cryosphere.net/7/375/2013/tc-7-375-2013.pdf article in The Cryosphere, 7, 375–393, 2013
https://www.google.com/search?q=bedmap2&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&client=firefox-b Google search
